Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur

The history of agricultural education in Kerala can be traced back to the year 1896 when a scheme was evolved in the erstwhile Travancore State to train a few young men in scientific agriculture at the Demonstration Farm, Karamana, Thiruvananthapuram, presently, the Cropping Systems Research Centre under Kerala Agricultural University. Agriculture was introduced as an optional subject in the middle school classes in the State in 1922 when an Agricultural Middle School was started at Aluva, Ernakulam District. The popularity and usefulness of this school led to the starting of similar institutions at Kottarakkara and Konni in 1928 and 1931 respectively. Agriculture was later introduced as an optional subject for Intermediate Course in 1953. In 1955, the erstwhile Government of Travancore-Cochin started the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, Thiruvananthapuram and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences at Mannuthy, Thrissur for imparting higher education in agricultural and veterinary sciences, respectively. These institutions were brought under the direct administrative control of the Department of Agriculture and the Department of Animal Husbandry, respectively. With the formation of Kerala State in 1956, these two colleges were affiliated to the University of Kerala. The post-graduate programmes leading to M.Sc. (Ag), M.V.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees were started in 1961, 1962 and 1965 respectively. On the recommendation of the Second National Education Commission (1964-66) headed by Dr. D.S. Kothari, the then Chairman of the University Grants Commission, one Agricultural University in each State was established. The State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) were established in India as an integral part of the National Agricultural Research System to give the much needed impetus to Agriculture Education and Research in the Country. As a result the Kerala Agricultural University (KAU) was established on 24th February 1971 by virtue of the Act 33 of 1971 and started functioning on 1st February 1972. The Kerala Agricultural University is the 15th in the series of the SAUs. In accordance with the provisions of KAU Act of 1971, the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, were brought under the Kerala Agricultural University. In addition, twenty one agricultural and animal husbandry research stations were also transferred to the KAU for taking up research and extension programmes on various crops, animals, birds, etc. During 2011, Kerala Agricultural University was trifurcated into Kerala Veterinary and Animal Sciences University (KVASU), Kerala University of Fisheries and Ocean Studies (KUFOS) and Kerala Agricultural University (KAU). Now the University has seven colleges (four Agriculture, one Agricultural Engineering, one Forestry, one Co-operation Banking & Management), six RARSs, seven KVKs, 15 Research Stations and 16 Research and Extension Units under the faculties of Agriculture, Agricultural Engineering and Forestry. In addition, one Academy on Climate Change Adaptation and one Institute of Agricultural Technology offering M.Sc. (Integrated) Climate Change Adaptation and Diploma in Agricultural Sciences respectively are also functioning in Kerala Agricultural University.

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Open Access
Livelihood analysis of kattunaikan tribe of Wayanad
(Department Of Agricultural Extension, College Of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2013) Sreejas, S; KAU; Sakeer Husain, A
The study entitled “Livelihood Analysis of Kattunaikan tribe of Wayanad” was conducted to analyse Livelihood capital and to study the Extent of deprivation of Kattunaikan tribe of Wayanad. Their Social exclusion, Attitude towards developmental interventions, and the Constraints experienced by them in livelihood security were also studied. The study “Livelihood Analysis of Kattunaikan tribe of Wayanad” was conducted in three developmental blocks of Wayanad district namely Sulthan batheri, Mananthavady and Kalpetta. The selection of number of settlements from each block was done based upon the population of Kattunaikans in each block. Three settlements Random sampling technique was followed in the selection respondents. From each settlement, 20 family heads were randomly selected. Total sample size for the study was 120. The dependent variables selected for the study were Livelihood capital, Extent of deprivation and Social exclusion. Independent variables were selected which includes Age, Landholding, Family size, Value orientation, Political orientation, Change resistance, Modernization, Alcoholism and Attitude. The correlation between dependent and independent variables was studied using correlation analysis. Constraints experienced in livelihood security were also recorded from a number of identified statements as perceived by the tribes people. The data were collected using pre-tested structured interview schedule prepared for the study. The statistical tools like mean, percentage analysis and correlation analysis were used to analyse the data. The salient findings are presented below. Majority of the Kattunaikans (55%) belonged to young category. Most of the Kattunaikans( 52.5%) had only upto 10 cents of land holding. More than 30 per cent of the Kattunaikans had six members in their family. Majority (62.5%) of the respondents were traditional. Ninety two point five per cent of the respondents were politically oriented. Majority (92.5%) of the respondents were least resistant to change. Forty five point eight per cent of the respondents were non users of alcohol. More than 90 percent of the respondents were modern. Majority (69.2%) of the respondents had a positive attitude towards developmental interventions. In the case of Human capital, it was observed that 50.8 per cent of the respondents were illiterate. More than three fourth (85%) of the respondents were included in the high hygiene category. Majority (63.3%) were having high addictive behaviour. More than half (61.7%) of the respondents were having poor health care seeking behavior. Majority (92.5%) of the respondents were taking unbalanced diet. Human capital was estimated as 51.6. With respect to Physical capital it was found out that More than 50 per cent of the respondents were having concrete houses. Exactly 42.5 per cent of the respondents were having houses with good condition. More than 40 percent of the respondents were having Material possession of only 1000-5000 rupees. Forty per cent of the respondents were having no livestock possession. More than half (69.2%) of the households have in-house toilet facility. Sixty per cent of the respondents were having electric connectivity in their houses. Majority (74.2%) of the respondents have to go up to 500m for collecting water. Physical capital was estimated as 59.9 Annual income of the respondents ranges from Rs.6200 to Rs.96000.The average annual income was found to be Rs 22435/-. The mean expenditure was found out as Rs.20605.83/-. Only 24.2 percent of the respondents were having savings. Only 4.2 percent had a debt for an average amount of Rs. 9000. Financial capital was estimated as 59.6. The poverty gap was estimated as Rs. 20242. More than 90 per cent of the respondents are trapped in poverty. The study indicated that53.3 per cent of the respondents belong to the low social participation category. Majority (60.9%) of the respondents were having a good social relationship. Social capital was estimated as 50.6 With respect to gross cropped area, 50 per cent of the respondents were in the category of ‘very low’. More than half (56.7%) of the respondents depend heavily on natural resources for their livelihood. Natural capital Index was found out as 35.9. The Livelihood Capital Index was obtained as 51.5. More than three fourth (77.5%) of the respondents were having medium livelihood capital index The respondents were mostly deprived of cultivable land in the forest, income, land, employment, recreation, nutrition, clothing and food. Nearly half (50.84%) of the respondents were in the low social exclusion category. The relationship between independent and dependent variables revealed that landholding showed positive significant relationship with Livelihood capital. Attitude showed negative significant relationship with Deprivation. Change resistance showed positive significant relationship and modernization showed negative relationship with social exclusion. Extent of deprivation is negatively and significantly correlated with Human capital, Social capital and Financial capital. The most important constraint faced by the tribes people is the absence of title deeds. Landless and inadequate land for cultivation, alcoholism and smoking, growing unemployment, wild animal menace and scarcity of drinking water were the other important constraints faced by the Kattunaikan tribe in livelihood security. Kattunikans have to be developed by considering their culture and tradition. From the study it is clear that even though they were having an inclination towards their values, they are getting modernised. It can be said that they are in a transition stage. They are less empowered. Empowerment through education is essential. Illiteracy, income deprivation and associated ill effects are very much prevalent among them. So educational development by utilizing the educated Kattunaikans as teachers, establishment of value addition units of forest produces and in the settlements especially for women and contributory savings schemes (through co-operative societies) have to be established.
Open Access
Social exclusion of tribal agricultural labourers; the case of paniya tribe of wayanad
(Department Of Agricultural Extension, College Of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2013) Anoop, R J; KAU; Anil Kumar, A
Paniya tribes of Wayanad are the most backward among the vulnerable groups of Kerala. Their economy is traditional in nature, depending mainly on land and forest. On accounting the land utilisation pattern of Wayanad district has drastically changed owing to massive in-migration of people from the plains to these areas in search of land for cultivation and for starting plantations. Inappropriate implementation of schemes and lack of adequate technological support resulted in a drastic decline in the economy of the tribespeople resulting in their exclusion and deprivation. This study entitled "Social Exclusion of tribal agricultural labourers: A case of Paniya tribe of Wayanad" was an attempt to analyse the Social exclusion and their deprivation. The study was conducted in Wayanad district of Kerala. A sample of 90 tribespeople were selected randomly from three blocks of Wayanad district viz, Panamaram. Noolpuzha and Kaniyambetta. The study indicated that most of the tribespeople belonged to the middle age group, 48 per cent of the tribespeople. Among the respondents 82 per cent were illiterate and only 9% of the tribes had schooling. 89 per cent of the tribespeople had high level of environmental orientation and 100 per cent of them consume alcohol. The study revealed that the Paniya tribespeople had landholdings only up to 10 cents. 76% of the tribespeople had an area of 4-6 cents. It was identified that 67 per cent of the tribes do not use the land on lease and 21 per cent of the tribes had leased landholding of 3-4 cents. From the study it was found that 47 per cent of the tribes had an income ranging from Rs.3001-Rs.4000. The indebtedness as indicated 50 per cent have a debt amount ranging Rs.1000- Rs.2000. From the result it was revealed that 84 per cent of the tribes live in brick or laterite walled tile house. 65 per cent of the tribespeople live in a poor conditioned home. Classification of tribespeople based on social exclusion reveals that 54 per cent of the tribespeople have felt social exclusion and 46 per cent of them is do not feel they are socially excluded. On classifying the tribespeople based on deprivation it was found that 100 per cent of the Paniya tribespeople felt that they were deprived of the social functioning.
Open Access
Decision support system on nutrient recommendations for rice - an end - user assessment
(Department of Agricultural extension, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2011) Swafah, C; KAU; Ahamed, P
Effective transfer of technology is very crucial in agricultural development of any nation. This is a challenge particularly for countries like India where diverse farming, highly fragmented land holdings, large number of farmers, several official languages are involved in the process. As a result only a fraction of farming community is largely benefited by utilizing the new technological advancements. The information needs of agriculture at large are diverse and complicated. Reaching right information at right time is a major challenge through conventional extension methods. Thus introducing modern information and communication technology is a better option. It is an established fact that fertilisers contribute up to 50 percent to total production. However, the prevailing communication gap between scientific groups and farming communities is making the task highly difficult for practical implementation of official fertilization practices in the field. Farmers are not fully aware of nutrient doses Vs fertiliser quantities resulting in improper fertilization practices in the field. Such improper practices are leading to imbalance in nutrient use and finally leading to soil fertility degradation. The major requirement in this communication process is compilation, classified arrangement and proper management of diverse information on various fertilisers, nutrient doses for a wide range of crops and cropping systems. This has to be done in such a way that the specific information is quickly accessible and easily translated in to a practical recommendation. Realizing this, Kerala Agricultural University through a collaborative research programme with the Indian Council of Agricultural Research has come up with a decision support system entitled ‘Nutrient Recommendation Syatem for Rice’ (NRSR). The NRSR is a generic decision support system for rice capturing the selected seven rice cropping systems of Kerala, expected as an user friendly software package for choosing appropriate or available manurial and fertilizer options aiming sustainable yields and reasonable farmer’s profit. The NRSR will aid as a decision making tool for calibrating the required dose of fertilizers for a particular area of land in a specific cropping system, specific to soil test data and arriving at the total cost of each manures and fertilizers. This package supported with touch screen option, will act as an efficient extension tool for the agricultural officers, rice scientists, and other extensionists in decision making and prescribing appropriate nutrient management options (Ganesan, 2006). Developing a DSS software is a time consuming and resource intensive project. So a systematic user-participatory assessment exercise, prior to its large scale recommendation is imperative. The study was conducted to identify the gaps and to assess the technical quality, information efficiency, and userfriendliness as perceived by end- users. The research was conducted among the agricultural officers of Thrissur and Palakkad districts of Kerala as they were two leading districts in rice cultivation in the state. The respondents from both the districts agreed that it could save the time of user in getting solutions for field problems, and also it is cheaper when compared to the process of seeking human expertise. An increase in knowledge level of respondents regarding nutrient management aspects of rice cultivation also happened after giving exposure to NRSR. The main suggestions obtained for the refinement of software were as follows: 1.The fertiliser calculator provided in NRSR is capable of performing straight fertiliser calculation only, and unable to calculate fertiliser dose for complex fertilisers like Factomphose which is commonly used and easily available nitrogen source. So it should also be included in the system. 2. The fertiliser calculator in the system was designed in such a way that it is according to lowmedium- high status of soil fertility, it should be sensitive to numerical data of soil test for getting more accurate results. 3. NRSR should be developed in local language so that maximum users could benefit. 4. NRSR should be linked and updated according to weather forecast and given in the web to access by all kinds of users at any time. 5. More clear photographs should be included to diagnose the symptom easily. 6.Demo videos for seed treatment, mat nursery preparation and other operations in rice should also included in the system. 7. The latest rice varieties with specific charecteristics and photographs should also be included in NRSR.
Open Access
Analysis of constraints and strategies for scaling up of precision farming in Kerala
(Department Of Agricultural Extension, College Of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2013) Sadam, Hanjabam; KAU; Prakash, R
The study entitled “Analysis of constraints and strategies for scaling up of precision farming in Kerala” was an attempt to critically analyse the attitude of the farmers towards PF technology, assess the extent of adoption, identify the constraints and formulate strategies for scaling up of PF in Kerala. Ninety farmers consisting of 60 precision farmers (banana and vegetables) and 30 conventional farmers were randomly selected from Chittur block in Palakkad district of Kerala. 12 independent variables, two dependent variables and 30 constraints were studied and analysed with the help of different scales and techniques. A well-structured pre tested interview schedule was used for collection of data from the respondents. The study indicated that 80 per cent of the precision farmers belonged to old age group. Majority of the farmers had more than 25 years of farming experience. Precision farmers had a higher level of information seeking behaviour, risk and scientific orientation. More than 50 per cent of the precision farmers had attended more than 10 trainings. Conventional farmers had better market perception and were more economic orientated. However precision farmers were more innovative. Majority of the respondents had moderately favourable attitude towards PF practices and had medium level of adoption. The most important constraints experienced by both categories of respondents were rainfall and other meteorological problem and high cost of inputs. Non-availability of inputs, lack of technical skill , inadequate size of landholdings , lack of marketing facilities, heavy fluctuation in commodity price, high labour charges were other constraints of importance. Provision of a panel of multidisciplinary specialists for full time technical advice and a technical officer for implementation of the scheme was one suggestion. Developments of a market support system, F1 hybrids suiting to Kerala etc., were other measures. Besides, some extension strategies like shifting of PF from technology push to application driven approach, providing technologies through rental services , strengthening the relationship among IT, ICT, biotechnology and PF , development of a Decision Support System ( DSS) etc., are suggested which may help to scale up PF in Kerala.
Open Access
Farm telecast in Kerala - a critical appraisal
(Department Of Agricultural Extension, College Of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2013) Sobha, S; KAU; Seema, B
This study entitled ‘Farm Telecast in Kerala – a Critical Appraisal’ was carried out in fifteen panchayats of Thiruvananthapuram, Kollam and Alappuzha districts. The main objectives of the study were to study the farm telecast viewing behaviour of farmers and correlate their socio – psychological characteristics with it, content analysis of agricultural programmes, compare the programmes of different Malayalam channels on the basis of content, mode of telecast, time, duration and frequency .Suggest steps to improve the efficiency of farm programmes. The data were collected using the pre tested interview schedule from 90 respondents and analysed using suitable statistical tools. The suggestions for improving the programme were collected from 60 respondents comprising of agricultural scientists, extension agents, producers and members of post-production team. The major findings of the study indicate that 51.11 per cent of the farmers surveyed were viewing the agricultural programmes more than twice a week. Majority (68.89%) of the farmers completely and 62.22 per cent keenly viewed all the programmes. Majority of farmers were taking down notes of programmes. Most of the respondents (60.44%) sometimes discussed the programmes with other progressive farmers, extension agents and friends. Majority of the respondents were either regularly or sometimes clarifying their doubts with extension personnel’s or progressive farmers. Most of the farmers(53.33%) had medium level of viewing behaviour. Majority of the farmers preferred to view 45 minutes programme in the evening for more than five days a week. Success story was the most preferred mode. Above fifty per cent of the farmers preferred viewing the agricultural programmes telecast by Doordarshan, Asianet, Kairali and Jai hind channels in that order. Age, educational status, occupation, farming experience had no significant relationship; innovativeness, economic motivation, risk orientation, cosmopoliteness, scientific orientation, achievement motivation, social participation, mass media exposure, extension contact, extension participation and information source utilization were significantly and positively related to viewing behavior. Sixty five per cent of the variation in viewing behaviour was accounted by six variables. Content analysis revealed that agriculture was the main subject matter followed by animal husbandry. Documentary and success story modes were used with government officials and farmers as the main information sources. Majority of the farmers perceived the farm programmes to be fairly effective. Strategy for improvement of the farm programmes include telecasting a wide range of location specific and need based programmes in demonstration and success stories modes with increased participation of farmers. Telecast 45 minutes to one hour programme in the evening between 7pm - 9pm with prior announcement of the programme details as done by AIR. Based on the objectives of the study it can be concluded that majority of the farmers perceived that the farm programmes telecast by Doordarshan, Asianet, Kairali and Jai hind TV to be fairly effective and they preferred to have 45 minutes to one hour duration programme in success story/demonstration mode on all days of the week between 7-9 PM on current topics. The implication is that the audience research wing of the channels needs to be strengthened so that the programmes can be tailor made to suit the needs of the farming community.
Open Access
Innovations in e-agricultural extension technology (e-AET): diffusion and adoption of agri-expert systems among extension professionals in Kerala
(Department Of Agricultural Extension, College Of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2014) Modem, Ravikishore; KAU; Allah, Thomas
The present study entitled 'Innovations in e-Agricultural Extension Technology (e-AET): Diffusion and adoption of agri-expert systems among extension professionals in Kerala' was conducted at Thiruvananthapuram district during 2012-2014 covering 100 extension professionals. Expert systems allows the use and application of information technology and communications technology (lCT's) to access and obtain information related to agricultural production, marketing, distribution, and prices, and the results of agricultural research, innovations, to raise the level of agricultural production and benefit the farming community. The present study, therefore, is with the objective to conduct a systematic appraisal of existing expert systems in agriculture vis a vis their diffusion among the extension professionals. The findings demonstrate that most of the extension professionals either in State Department, NGO or University have positive attitudes towards expert system. Age, training, innovativeness, retrievability, relevancy, format clarity, information content, availability, accuracy and timeliness affect extension professionals' attitudes. Based on respondent's stage in the adopter categorisation with reference to expert systems, it was found that 10 per cent of the sampled respondents belonged to innovators category, 19 per cent respondents belonged to early adopters' category, 32 per cent respondents belonged to early majority category, 24 per cent respondents belonged to late majority category and 15 per cent respondents belonged to laggards' category. Effectiveness index of expert system applications was worked out using seven statements and the results showed that pedagogy (as a means to effective learning through expert system) having highest effectiveness index. The findings demonstrate that most of the respondents belonged to middle age category, holding with master degrees; attended training on lCT. It was also found that most of the respondents having high innovativeness and accessibility, forinat clarity and information content of the expert system perceived as high. Availability, retrievability, relevancy, timeliness, accuracy and effectiveness index of expert system perceived as medium by the respondents. Hence, the study undoubtedly exhibited affirmative reaction from all three categories of respondents on the applications of expert systems in the field of agriculture, because local information resource centers are gaining importance with computers carrying expert systems to help fanners to make decisions.
Open Access
Innovations in e-agricultural extension technology (e-AET): diffusion and adoption of information kiosks and mobile initiatives among the farmers of Thiruvanathapuram district, Kerala
(Department of Agricultural Extension, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2014) Hinduja, N A; KAU; Kishore, Kumar N
The present study entitled, 'Innovations in e-Agricultural Extension Technology (e-AET): Diffusion and adoption of information kiosks and mobile SMS among farmers of Thiruvananthapuram district, Kerala' was carried out to analyse the utility of the information support provided to ~arrners through the Information Kiosks and Mobile initiatives in Kerala with forty user farmers for Information Kiosk and sixty user farmers for Mobile SMS from Thiruvananthapuram district. The findings demonstrate that majority of the farmers in both the categories fell under middle age group and had favourable attitude towards these initiatives. Farmers utilizing Information Kiosk became aware through contact of Information Kiosk installed at Krishi Bhavan, markets, had more high school education and disseminated information through communication with fellow farmers. Farmers utilizing Mobile SMS became aware through extension personnel, had more collegiate education and disseminated information through Mobile/Telephone. Medium level of exposure to Information and Communication Technology (ICT), effectiveness, information needs, perception and utility of messages was observed for the information support given through both Information Kiosk and Mobile SMS. Most of the fanners utilized the Information Kiosk messages for 4-5 times and Mobile SMS only once. The major constraint in accessing Information Kiosk is lack of awareness and contents related problems is a major constraint for accessing Mobile SMS. Utility of the messages of Information Kiosk is significantly positively con-elated with education, frequency of use of messages, awareness source, information needs, attitude of the farmers, effectiveness. Perception towards Information Kiosk is positively con-elated significantly with information dissemination ways, awareness source and effectiveness. Utility of messages mobile is significantly positively con-elated with exposure to ICT, information dissemination ways, frequency of use of messages, information needs, advantages and effectiveness. Perception towards mobile SMS is significantly positively correlated with exposure to ICT, awareness source, information dissemination ways, effectiveness and negatively correlated with constraints. Providing adequate infrastructure, content improvement promotion of public private partnership, network development among agricultural institutions periodical monitoring and evaluation, conducting training programmes, developing favourable attitude and orientation of human resources towards ICT extension is the strategy to be followed to scale up the uses ofthese initiatives. Hence the study undoubtedly exhibited that quick dissemination of information from agricultural research system through lnfonnation Kiosks and Mobile SMS can be done and they constitute one of the critical inputs in technology transfer in present agricultural scenano.
Open Access
Performance effectiveness of Mahatma Gandhi national rural employment guarantee programme in Palakkad District (MGNREGP).
(Department of Agricultural Extension, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2011) Lawrence, Prabu C; KAU; Shilaja, S
Poverty eradication is a long term goal of India. Since independence number of poverty alleviation programmes were launched. It would be incorrect to say that all the poverty alleviation programmes had shown the result much expected. In this way the ongoing programme the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Programme is a flagship programme of Government of India. It is launched on February 2006 with the aim of enhancing livelihood security and poverty reduction. The study entitled “Performance effectiveness of Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Programme” is an attempt to study the performance effectiveness of the programme in terms of stakeholder participation, stakeholder satisfaction and physical and financial achievement. The study ‘Performance effectiveness of Mahatma Gandhi national Rural Employment Guarantee Programme was conducted in three Grama Panchayats of Palakkad district namely Agali, Eruthenpathy and Kannadi panchayat. The Multi stage Random sampling technique was followed in the selection of block, panchayat and beneficiaries. Two sets of respondents were selected for the study namely beneficiary respondents and beneficiary officers. Total sample size for the study was 120 which include 90 beneficiary respondents and 30 beneficiary officers. The dependent variable selected to measure the performance effectiveness of the programme were extent of stakeholder participation, stakeholder satisfaction and physical and financial achievement. Independent variables were selected which includes age, sex, caste, education, marital status, family type, family size (Socio-personal variables), annual income, expenditure pattern (Socio-economic variable), level of aspiration, economic motivation, attitude towards MGNREGP, perception about MGNREGP (Socio-psychological variable) and contact with officials, media exposure and social participation (Extension communication variables). The study revealed that 76.66 per cent of the beneficiary respondents actively participated and 7.77 per cent very actively participated in MGNREGP. With respect to beneficiary officers 22 per cent actively participated and 50 per cent were participated in MGNREGP. With regard to extent of satisfaction of beneficiary respondents, 50 per cent were very much satisfied and 50 per cent were satisfied with the MGNERGP, whereas satisfaction of officer was measured in terms of job satisfaction which indicated that above 50 per cent of the beneficiary officers were satisfied. The achievements of physical targets were measured in terms of increased employment, enhanced wage earnings, participation of marginalised group, strengthening and conservation of natural resources, enhanced purchasing power of rural household’s and poverty reduction. It is revealed from the study that an increasing trend in all these aspects. The study indicated that 67.78 per cent of the respondents belonged to middle age group of which above 90 per cent of them were women and married. Most of the respondents were having nuclear family and forty per cent were having 4 members in their family. Above 60 per cent of the respondents belonged to backward community and 54 per cent were illiterate. Regarding the annual income, 54.45 per cent of the respondents earned income ranging between Rs.30001 and Rs.45000 whereas 40 per cent of the respondents annual expenditure was less than or equal to Rs.25000 and 34.44 per cent were in the range between Rs.25001- Rs.30000. The level of aspiration was found to have 65 per cent of the respondents under low level of aspiration (past), 80 per cent of the respondents under medium level aspiration (present) and above 60 per cent of the respondents under high level (future) aspiration. Economic motivation is an important motive for a person to perform more effectively to improve his/her economic performance. The economic motivation of the respondents was found to have 55 per cent of the respondents under higher level of economic motivation and strive hard in all possible ways to raise their income. The study revealed that 88.89 per cent of the beneficiary respondents had favourable attitude towards MGNREGP of which 20 per cent were having highly favourable attitude. With respect to beneficiary officers 60 per cent had favourable attitude and 26.67 per cent had highly favourable attitude towards MGNREGP and also indicated that above 90 per cent of the respondents perceived that ‘MGNREGP helps to improve the livelihood of rural poor, empower the rural women as well as it is a blessing to women and unskilled labourers and it has resulted creation of useful assets in the village, strengthened the natural resources. It also perceived as a best programme in the era of rural development. The constraints such as delay in wage payment, not getting continuous employment, getting employment under MGNREGP at the peak time of agricultural work, getting work distant place were perceived by the beneficiary respondents as important constraints. With respect to beneficiary officers more work load, inadequate technical support, and identification of works to meet the registered households were perceived as important constraints. The major findings of the performance of MGNREGP as perceived by respondents revealed that ‘relevance and usefulness of work to the village/people, quality of the work executed, process of registration, selection of works, issue of job cards, execution of works were ranked as effectively performed. The relationship between independent and dependent variables revealed that education and social participation showed positive significant relationship with extent of participation. With regard to satisfaction, education, social participation and performance were having positive and significant relationship. The panchayat wise comparison of selected independent and dependent variables using ANOVA revealed that family size, contact with officials, perception and satisfaction were found to have significant differences between panchayats whereas rest of the variables age, education, annual income, mass media exposure, economic motivation, social participation, expenditure pattern, attitude, performance and participation were positive but not had significant differences. The results of the canonical correlation indicated that extent of social participation, caste, education, marital status, performance, mass media exposure, contact with officials, age and future level of aspiration were the key variables in deciding the performance effectiveness of MGNREGP through extent of participation and extent of satisfaction.
Open Access
Enhancing the role of informal sector in food security and poverty reduction in malawi-policy implications and recommendations
(Department of agricultural extension, College of horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2012) Aston Oliver, Mulwafu; KAU; Jayasree Krishnankutty
Malawi is a land-locked country located in the Southern Africa along the Great Rift Valley. The country has a population of approximately 14 million people, of which 51 per cent are women. Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy, providing livelihood to 80 per cent of the population and generating 35 to 45 per cent of GDP. The growth of economy is fundamental through exploitation of abundant natural resources, particularly enterprise development in agriculture sector. The rural poor, largely women are the players in informal sector, as cultivators, growers, vendors and buyers of agro-based products. The sector is informal in the sense that the units involved are mostly unregistered, not recorded in official statistics, and have little or no access to formal markets for goods and credit facilities. The informal sector activities have widely been recognised for its important role in promoting food security and poverty reduction. Surplus production at household level has been the major sources for translating to rural economic activities. The sector plays central function in addressing challenges of rampant unemployment and small incomes. The study was conducted in Balaka district, which is situated in the South and Ntcheu in the Central region of Malawi. In Balaka, Mangochi turn-off and Ulongwe markets were targeted while in Ntcheu, Tsangano turn-off and Kampepuza markets. Hence, four local markets were purposively sampled due to the nature of agro-based businesses carried out. Thirty farmers involved in the informal sector were randomly selected from each of the markets as respondents, making a total sample size of 120 farmers. The main objectives of the study were analysing the internal and external factors influencing the sector, examining the supply chain dynamics of agricultural commodities and understanding the spatial distribution of the informal sector. In addition, the study determined policy suggestions for possible up-scaling of the role of informal sector in promoting food security and poverty reduction in rural Malawi. The results revealed that informal sector activities were largely carried out by females accounting 61.7 per cent of total respondents. 50 per cent of respondents had education up to the eighth standard. Almost two-third of the respondents were involved in farming and agri-business activities operating along the main roads. The majority of respondents had average monthly income between MK10,000-MK30,000 (55%) and only 6 per cent had average monthly income of more than MK50,000. The computed household commercialisation index (HCI) revealed existence of three levels of commercialisation among respondents; subsistence (38%), semi-commercial (33%) and commercial (29%). This delineation suggested bringing specific support for improving the commercialisation processes at each level with rightful policy measures. Computation of crop commercialisation index (CCI) was another important measure that determined crops amenable for commercialisation. The results indicated that vegetables were the best option for commercialisation. Ranked second, third and forth were tubers, fruit and food grains in that order. Finally, an analysis of enterprise profit as percentage of annual crop sales was done in order to understand about crop diversification potential. The results indicated that the enterprise profit as percent of sales from vegetables, fruits and tubers were higher than that of food grains. For example, in 2010-2011 growing season, percent of tubers (82%), vegetables (79%), fruits (93%) and food grain registered only 48 percent. The multinomial logistic regression revealed that credit facilities, farmer business orientation, innovativeness, commodity transportation, monthly income and information source utilization were the significant factors influencing the transition from subsistence to semi-commercial. Education and extension services were significant factors contributing to the transition from semi-commercial farming to commercial. Despite the successes registered, the informal sector continues to face problems ranging from its productivity to managerial aspects. Its productivity is constrained with inadequate infrastructures (roads, markets, water, electricity, etc), access to credit facilities, lack of processing facilities and marketing linkages. On managerial aspects, prevailing situation indicated that there is limited farmer capacity building, limited information and non farmer favouring policies regarding their growth in the sector. In conclusion, the informal sector demonstrates immense potential in bringing better wellbeing of rural communities. It holds the promise of being the target for developmental activities by different agencies, as better technologies, market information and farmer support can help increase the volume, efficiency and value share of the informal sector which will ultimately improve the rural economies to a great extent.

Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur

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