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ThesisItem Restricted Effect of rice residue biochar on the bioavailability of lead and cadmium to Indian mustard (Brassica juncea (L.) Czern.)(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2020) Dubey, Shikha; Sikka, R.The investigation titled “Effect of rice residue biochar on the bioavailability of lead and cadmium to Indian mustard (Brassica juncea (L.) Czern.)” was conducted at screen house, Department of Soil Science, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana during rabi season of 2018-2019. The objectives of study were to determine the effects of addition of rice residue biochar on immobilization of Cd and Pb in soil and their translocation to Indian mustard (Brassica juncea (L.) Czern.). Two differently irrigated - tube well water irrigated (TWI) and sewage water irrigated (SWI) - soils were collected and amended with four levels of rice residue biochar and further spiked with four levels of Cd and Pb individually. Spiking of Cd and Pb significantly decreased the shoot dry matter yield (DMY) in both TWI and SWI soil. The DMY in TWI soil increased by 12.5 and 19.6 per cent compared to control in Cd and Pb contaminated soil, respectively at 2 per cent addition of biochar whereas in case of SWI soil the corresponding increase was 19.2 and 17.5 per cent, respectively. Addition of rice residue biochar significantly increased the immobilization of DTPA-extractable Cd and Pb in both TWI and SWI soil. The DTPA-Cd and Pb decreased by 44.9 and 47.1 per cent in TWI soil at 4 per cent addition of biochar whereas in SWI soil the decrease was 38.1 and 39.5 per cent, respectively. Biochar addition countered the Cd and Pb content and increased the macro and micronutrient content of Indian mustard. The study indicated that rice residue biochar has potential for ameliorating heavy metal contaminated soils.ThesisItem Restricted Effect of organic amendments on boron availability in calcareous soils under raya (Brassica juncea L.) and soybean (Glycine max.L.)(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2019) Sukhvir Kaur; Sharma, SandeepA pot experiment was conducted during rabi (2016-2017) and kharif (2017) season to study the response of raya (Brassica juncea L.) (cv. PBR 357) and soybean (Glycine max L.) (cv. SL 958) to different levels of boron (B) and different organic manures in boron deficient calcareous soils of Punjab. Three different soils with varying calcium carbonate content viz. 0.65 (soil I), 4.1 (soil II) and 5.4 per cent (soil III) were collected from Ludhiana, Sudhar (Ludhiana) and Bathinda Districts for experimental study. The treatments comprised six levels of boron for soil application viz. 0.0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0 and 2.5 mg B kg-1 and two levels of farmyard manure viz. control and FYM @10 t ha-1. The experiment was laid out in CRD factorial design with three replications. Yield and yield attributing characters at different crop growth stages (grand growth and maturity stage) increased significantly at 1.5 mg B kg-1 with FYM irrespective of the soils. The boron content and its uptake was higher in leaves followed by stem, grains and root, respectively both in raya and soybean crop. Among calcareous soils, soil I with lowest calcium carbonate was the best soil in respect of yield, yield components, boron content and its uptake in comparison to soil with medium and high calcium carbonate content. Boron transformation in soil after the harvesting of raya and soybean crop revealed that readily soluble was higher in soil I compared with soil II and soil III. Specifically adsorbed, oxide bound, residual and total boron were more in soil III however, oxide and organically bound fractions were higher in soil II. The coefficient of determinations (R2) for Langmuir adsorption isotherm were lower compared with Freundlich adsorption isotherm which proved that Freundlich adsorption isotherm to be more valid for adsorption studies. It indicated that B adsorption data fits excellent to Freundlich adsorption isotherm. The highest value of adsorption maxima (b) (45.0 mg kg-1) was recorded in silty clay. However, the highest bonding energy constant (k) (0.111 L kg-1) value was recorded in sandy soil whereas; the (k) lowest value 0.047 mg L-1 was recorded in silty clay. The Freundlich bonding energy constant increased with increase in soil clay content having minimum value in sandy soil 1.405 mg kg-1 and maximum (2.29 mg kg-1) in silty clay soil. In incubation study, the availability of boron in soil was studied with six varying levels of boron (0.0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0 and 2.5 mg B kg-1), five organic amendments (control, farmyard manure, press mud, poultry manure and rice straw compost) with three levels of calcium carbonate content (0.64, 4.1 and 5.4 per cent) at 15, 30 and 60 days of intervals. The soil was incubated in a temperature controlled room at 25oC. Boron availability increased as a function of time and treatment for different soils. The mean boron content was highest in soil application of 2.5 mg B kg-1 with farmyard manure followed by press mud, poultry manure, rice straw and control (no-amendment) in different types of soils. Availability of boron was highest in soil with low calcium carbonate content and decreased with increasing levels of calcium carbonate content over time period.ThesisItem Restricted Assessment of soil chemical and biological properties under cotton-wheat and rice-wheat cropping system in south-west part of Bathinda, Punjab(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2019) Kahlon, Pawandeep; Yadav, B.K.The present study was undertaken to assess different soil chemical and biological properties under cotton-wheat and rice-wheat cropping system in Sangat block of Bathinda district, Punjab. The soil samples were collected from surface soil (0-15cm) and sub-surface soil (15-30cm) using GPS location. The pH values of soils from both the cropping system was neutral to alkaline in reaction ranging higher under cotton-wheat cropping system. EC was observed to be highest in rice-wheat cropping system at both surfaces. Results revealed that organic carbon, available N, available P and available S was higher under rice-wheat cropping system. Among exchangeable bases exchangeable K was reported to be higher under cotton-wheat cropping system whereas exchangeable Ca and Na were higher under rice-wheat cropping system. DTPA-extractable micronutrients (Fe, Cu, Zn, and Mn) were higher under cotton-wheat cropping system but at par with rice-wheat cropping system. Among biological properties, higher DHA was reported in cotton-wheat cropping system whereas alkaline and acid phosphatase was reported to be higher in rice-wheat cropping system. Nutrient index value among both the cropping system was calculated and it was reported that the soil was low in N (1.4 and 1.3), Fe (1.2 and 1.1) and Ca (1.2 and 1.3), medium in K (2 and 2) and Mn (1.9 and 1.7) and higher in P (2.6 and 2), S (2.6 and 2.4), Zn (2.9 and 2.7) and Cu (3 and 2.9) availability under cotton-wheat cropping system at 0-15 and 15-30 cm depth respectively. Under rice-wheat cropping system the soil was low in Ca (1.4 and 1.5), Fe (1.4 and 1.3) and Mn (1.3 and 1.3) availability at 0-15 and 15-30 cm respectively, medium in N availability (1.6) at 0-15 cm and low (1.2) at 15-30 cm depth and medium in K (2.2 and 1.8) availability at 0-15 and 15-30 cm respectively and higher in P (2.9 and 2.7), S (2.6 and 2.6), Cu (2.8 and 2.8) and Zn (2.6) availability at 0-15 cm depth whereas Zn availability was medium (2.4) at 15-30 cm depth.ThesisItem Restricted Influence of land use systems and seasons on soil biochemical properties under rainfed conditions in sub montane Punjab(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2019) Arora, Raavi; Sharma, VivekLand use changes alter the soil properties and its functioning due to changes in soil microbial functions, soil organic carbon (SOC) storage and nutrient turnover in soils. In present study, a total of 150 soil samples were collected from four rainfed land use systems (agri-horticulture, agroforestry, cultivated and barren) during three seasons (summer, rainy and winter season) at two locations viz. Garhshankar (Hoshiarpur) and Nurpur Bedi (Rupnagar) for the analysis of soil biochemical properties. The results showed that soils at both locations were loamy sand to sandy loam in texture with neutral to slightly alkaline soil reaction. The electrical conductivity (EC) ranged from 0.18 to 0.23 dS m-1 at Garhshankar and 0.19 to 0.26 dS m-1 at Nurpur Bedi. Soil organic carbon content ranged from 2.18 to 5.83 and 1.99 to 5.03 g kg-1, being highest under dek and mango based system at Garhshankar and Nurpur Bedi, respectively. The soil microbial biomass carbon (MBC) ranged from 48.1 to 170.0 and 48.4 to 147.1 μg g-1 at Garhshankar and Nurpur Bedi, respectively. Among soil enzymes, the soil dehydrogenase activity (DHA) varied from 12.1 to 37.1 and 10.8 to 33.1 μg TPF g-1 hr-1, fluorescein diacetate activity from 0.65 to 2.49 and 1.17 to 2.86 μg fluorescein g-1, acid phosphatase from 14.7 to 22.2 and 16.3 to 39.1 μg PNP g-1 hr-1, alkaline phosphatase activity from 17.1 to 44.3 and 20.0 to 35.1 μg PNP g-1 hr-1, and urease activity from 4.67 to 6.62 and 5.82 to 6.38 μg NH4-N g-1 hr-1 for land use systems at Garhshankar and Nurpur Bedi, respectively. The values of soil physicochemical and biological properties, soil microbial quotient and metabolic potential were higher under agri-horticulture and agroforestry systems and least under barren system. The labile carbon fractions and carbon management index had higher values for agri-horticulture and agroforestry systems. Majority of the soil properties had higher values during rainy season as compared to winter and summer season at both Garhshankar and Nurpur Bedi. Principal component analysis and soil quality index showed that agroforestry system followed by agri-horticulture system had higher values of soil enzymes, MBC, SOC and carbon fractions. Among soil properties, SOC, available P, DTPA-Zn, DHA, mean weight diameter and urease activity at Garhshankar and SOC, MBC, EC, total organic carbon and available K at Nurpur Bedi were the most reliable and sensitive indicators for assessing soil quality under rainfed land use system in sub montane Punjab.ThesisItem Open Access Nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium management for wheat in poplar based agroforestry system(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2019) Janpriya Kaur; Baljit SinghThe present studies were conducted to evaluate the influence of different levels of N, P and K on wheat productivity in poplar plantations. Litterfall addition, return and release of nutrients through decomposition of litterfall were also evaluated. Wheat intercropped with different aged (2, 3, 5 and 6 year) poplar plantation and sole wheat was treated with different levels of N (0, 60, 90, 120, 150, 180 kg N/ha and LCC based-115 kg N/ha) and also different levels of nutrients (P and K) i.e. 0:0, 60:0. 60:30, 60:90, 90:0, 90:30 and 90:60 kg P2O5:K2O kg/ha in another experiment. Results indicated that growth, yield parameters, yield and nutrient (N, P and K) uptake by wheat grains and straw decreased significantly with increasing tree age but increased significantly with N fertilization. The best N level for wheat growth, yield, nutrient use efficiency and nutrient uptake under trees was LCC based application followed by 180 kg N/ha. Highest grain yield (44.2 q/ha), nutrient uptake by grains (kg/ha) i.e. N (86.1), P (14.27) and K (33.8) were obtained on fertilization with 180 kg N/ha while agronomic efficiency was maximum (18.4 kg grains/kg N applied) in LCC based treatment. Nutrient content and soil properties (OC, available N, P and K) showed a significant increase with tree age and N fertilization to maximum with 180 kg N/ha. Results of experiment with variable P, K levels indicated that wheat growth, yield, nutrients content, uptake and soil properties (OC, available N, P and K) under trees increased on fertilization with nutrients to maximum in T7 (90:60 kg P2O5:K2O/ha). In another experiment litterfall addition and return of nutrients showed significant increase with advancing tree age (2 to 6 years) and months of litterfall (October to December). The highest litterfall (5.51 t/ha) and among macronutrients maximum return of Ca (104.8 kg/ha) and in micronutrients highest return of Fe (7529 g/ha) was observed in 6 year plantation. Macronutrient return followed trend Ca>N>Mg>K>S>P and micronutrients Fe>Mn>Zn>Cu. Release of nutrients from litter under 2 and 5 year poplar with 120 and 180 kg N/ha increased with increasing N levels and time of decomposition to maximum with 180 kg N/ha 2 year plantation. Order of nutrient release was K>P>N. In incubation study, available N, P and K increased to maximum in soil amended with 0.3 % leaf litter levels treated with 75 mg N/kg soil at 90 days of incubation.ThesisItem Open Access Effect of irrigation scheduling and tillage for rice residue management on productivity and water use of wheat(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2019) Malkit Singh; Singh, K.B.The present study was conducted with three irrigation regimes based on irrigation water/open pan evaporation (IW/PAN-E) (0.6 (I1), (I2) 0.8 and 1.0 (I3)) and four tillage treatments for paddy residue management primary tillage with mouldboard plough to a depth of 25 cm (PTF+R) followed by rotavator, primary tillage with mouldboard plough to a depth of 14 cm (PTH+R) followed by rotavator, wheat sown with happy seeder in rice stubbles (NT) and secondary tillage with two discing and cultivator (CT) before sowing wheat to observe the effect of irrigation scheduling and tillage for residue management on water use and productivity of wheat for the two years (2016-17 and 2017-18). Both the soil bulk density and mean weight diameter were significantly higher in NT over PTF+R. The saturated hydraulic conductivity was significantly higher in PTF+R by 72.5% and 81.7% as compared to NT in 0- 7.5 and 7.5-15 cm soil layers respectively. Among tillage for residue management practices, the significantly higher grain yield was observed in PTF+R by 16.3% and 18.2% as compared to NT during 2016-17 and 2017-18 respectively. Significantly higher grain yield was observed in I3 by 39.5% and 37.5% as compared to I1 during 2016-17 and 2017-18 respectively. Grain yield was significantly higher under PTF+R during 2016-17 and 2017-18. The soil water retention and soil organic carbon content were significantly higher under NT as compared to PTH+R and CT. Leaf area index was significantly higher in PTF+R (by 56.8 %) as compared CT. Root length density was significantly higher by 89% in PTF+R as compared to NT. ET losses were higher under I3 than I1. PTF+R was observed to be better with respect to improvement in soil physical properties and water use in wheat.ThesisItem Open Access Dynamics of soil phosphorus in relation to carbon under different cropping systems(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2016) Dhram Prakash; Benbi, D.K.Dynamics of phosphorus in soils were studied in relation to nutrient management and land-use practices. The nutrient management practices evaluated included source (rock phosphate and single superphosphate) and rates of P application in rice-wheat system; and integrated nutrient management (INM) and organic farming practices in basmati-wheat system in field experiments conducted at the research farm of Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana. The land-uses studied included ricewheat, maize-wheat, cotton-wheat and poplar based agroforestry systems at farmers’ fields in different districts of Punjab. After seven cycles of rice-wheat cropping, farmyard manure (FYM) and rock phosphate (RP) application increased available P and soil organic carbon (SOC) by 72% and 98%, respectively over control. Inorganic P constituted the largest proportion (88-92%) of total P in soil and relative abundance of different inorganic P fractions in soils followed the order Ca-Al associated > Fe associated > humic bound > water soluble P. In basmati-wheat system, application of recommended rates of NPK and adoption of INM improved available P in soil over unamended control by 75 and 100%, respectively. The comparison of three organic sources revealed that available P was the highest in soil receiving 400 kg N ha-1 through FYM followed by rice straw compost and the lowest in vermicompost-amended plots. Application of FYM significantly increased inorganic, organic and total P, SOC and labile C pools compared to INM treatments. The INM increased inorganic, organic and total P by 77, 82 and 78%, respectively over NPK. Humic-bound organic P constituted major proportion (39.5-49.5%) and water soluble organic P comprised the smallest proportion (0.83-2.5%) of organic P in soils under basmati-wheat system. Beneficial effects of different treatments on soil properties were higher in surface soil (0-7.5 cm), which decreased with soil depth. Generally, soil P fractions were positively correlated with soil C pools. Cumulative P released in 96 hours of equilibration increased with manure and fertilizer application either alone or in combination. Phosphorus release kinetics were best described by Elovich and power function equations (R2≥0.98). Results of land-use studies showed that agroforestry systems had relatively higher proportion of organic P (27%) compared to sole cropping (6-7.7%). Soil organic C was the highest (0.58%) under agroforestry and was significantly correlated with soil P fractions under sole cropping systems. Soil properties viz. clay, organic C, CaCO3 and available P content significantly influenced soil P sorption and release kinetics. Phosphorus release decreased with increase in clay and CaCO3 content. On the contrary, P release increased with increase in available P and organic C. The results suggested that P availability will be higher in coarse-textured, non-calcareous soils having higher levels of organic C and available P. Therefore, for efficient P management it is important to take into account soil texture, the existing soil P level, organic C content and calcareousness of soil. Practices that increase SOC content and ameliorate CaCO3 could lead to improved P use efficiency.ThesisItem Open Access Effect of zinc phasing on its distribution and fractions under continous maize-wheat cropping system(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2019) Sonal Kumar; Verma, GayatriThe present investigation was carried out in the pre-established experiment initiated in year 2012 (rabi season) at the Research Farm of Department of Soil Science, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana in randomized block design with thirteen treatments replicated three times. The soil of the experimental area was sandy loam in texture and neutral in soil reaction. Surface (0.0-0.15 m) and sub-surface (0.15-0.30 m) soil samples were taken after the harvest of maize crop (kharif 2017&18) of maize-wheat cropping system. These samples were analysed to study the effect of Zn application at different levels (2.5, 5, 7.5, and 10 kg ha-1) and phasing of Zn (once, alternate year and every year) and one control on the distribution of Zn fractions and grain yield. The soil samples were also analysed for soil properties, available N, P, K and DTPA extractable micronutrients. Application of zinc in three phases; once, alternate year and every year along with its application at different levels had non-significant influence on soil pH, EC and OC. DTPA extractable Zn and Mn was increased with increasing Zn levels in each phase of Zn application while DTPA extractable Fe and Cu showed an irregular trend. All the fractions of Zn were noticeably higher in treatments with highest amount of added Zn at 10 kg Zn ha-1 every year than the lower doses. Among the fractions, majority of Zn was distributed in res-Zn, cryst Fe-Zn and amor Fe-Zn while rest of the fractions occupied a small portion of the total Zn present in the soil. The distribution of Zn fractions in soil was found in the order: residual Zn (Res-Zn) > crystalline iron oxide bound Zn (Cryst Fe-Zn) > amorphous iron oxide bound Zn (Amor Fe-Zn) >organically bound Zn (OM-Zn) > manganese oxide bound Zn (MnOx-Zn) > carbonate bound Zn (Carb-Zn) >specifically adsorbed Zn (SpAd-Zn)> water soluble + exchangeable Zn (WS+Ex-Zn) in both surface and sub-surface layers. Zn application to maize at 10 kg ha-1 every year had the highest grain yield which was statistically similar with Zn application at 7.5 kg ha-1 in alternate year. Hence, Zn application at 7.5 kg ha-1 in alternate year is the lowest rate at which maximum grain yield can be obtained. All the fractions of Zn exhibited positive and significant correlation amongst themselves and crop yield which indicated a dynamic equilibrium among the fractions.ThesisItem Open Access Development of spectral models for assessing soil fertility status in various agroecological sub-regions of Punjab(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2019) Garnaik, Saheed; Sekhon, B.S.The present study titled “Development of spectral models for assesing soil fertiity status in various agroecological sub-regions of Punjab” was carried out in five agroecological sub-regions, namely, Submountainous Siwalik Hills (SSH), Northeastern Undulating (NEU), Piedmont and Alluvial Plain (PAP), Central Alluvial Plain (CAP) and Southwestern Alluvial Plain (SWAP). The objectives were to develop visible-near infrared (vis-NIR) models for predicting soil properties and to examine portability of spectral models across regions. GPS based soi fertility maps were prepared by using inverse distance weighted (IDW) interpolation and classification. Highest soil organic carbon (SOC) and sand content (mean 0.77 % and 74.2 %, respectively) in 0-15cm soil were observed in SSH, whereas highest nitrogen, phosphorous and, manganese contents (mean value 104.5 kg ha-1, 40.8 kg ha-1, 7.8 ppm, respectively) were found in NEU. The largest potassium, copper and silt levels (mean 173.1 kg ha-1, 5.21 ppm, 22.4 %, respectively) were reported in PAP. The CAP represented highest calcium carbonate content (mean 1.36 %), while highest pH, electrical conductivity, iron and zinc (mean value 7.93, 0.95 dS/m, 29.5 ppm and 3.2 ppm, respectively) levels were observed in SWAP region. Spectral signatures in vis-NIR range were collected using ASD Spectroradiometer. Partial least square regression (PLSR) was emlpoyed to develop spectral models for assessing soil fertility attributes. Various model evaluation indices e.g. root mean square error (RMSE), ratio of performance to deviation (RPD) and coefficient of determination (R2) were used to evaluate predictive performance of the PLSR models. The RMSE, RPD and R2 values varied between 0.05 - 0.39, 0.32 – 1.73 and 0.05- 0.69, respectively in SSH for various soil properties. Similarly, in NEU RMSE, RPD and R2 values ranged between 0.05 – 0.39, 0.93 – 2.15 and 0.12 - 0.82, respectively. In PAP region, the RMSE, RPD and R2 values varied between 0.07-2.90, 0.32-1.6 and 0.05-0.72, respectively. CAP region showed RMSE, RPD and R2 values ranging between 0.03-0.43, 0.62-1.5 and 0.03-0.64, respectively. In case of SWAP region, RMSE, RPD and R2 values ranged between 0.03-0.73, 0.72-1.5 and 0.05-0.68, respectively. Moreover, in common model, RMSE, RPD and R2 values varied between 0.19-3.81, 0.16- 0.98 and 0.01-0.40. A comparison among models suggested about their non-portability across regions. Based upon various performance indices, the CaCO3 and sand predictions were reliable, whereas prediction of properties like SOC and Olsen-P was moderately reliable. The pH and EC, however, could not be predicted much accurately. The study suggested about exploring better statistical tools to enhance prediction performance of spectral models.