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Open Access
Evaluation of respirable dust filtering materials for agricultural field operations
(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2017) Narjeet Singh; Khurana, Rohinish
Indian economy is heavily dependent on agriculture. Most of the agriculture operations had been mechanized. Mechanization leads to dust generation especially during tillage, harvesting and threshing operations. Prolonged exposure to dust is harmful for the agricultural farm workers. A study was conducted to identify agricultural field operations requiring intervention of personal protection from respirable dust as health hazard. Protective measures available were evaluated during the study. Observations were made to measure the density of three different particle sizes i.e. 1µ, 2.5µ and 10µ of the dust generated during tillage, harvesting and threshing operations using dust monitor. The selected implements were cultivator, disc harrow, rotavator, planker, laser leveler, thresher and combine harvester. Mean values of dust density across all operations were found to be within permissible limit of 5.0 mg/m3 as defined by OSHA. Four most dust generating operations were identified as disc harrow, rotavator, combine and thresher with mean dust density values 2.501, 2.600, 3.404 and 3.167 mg/m3. Fifteen different filtering elements were evaluated for their dust filtering performance during the selected operations. Mean values of dust density for all filter elements during the selected operations varied between 0.175 and 0.505 mg/m3. The overall mean dust filtering efficiency value for all the filter elements varied between 76.4 to 96.1%. Cloth type filter elements with three layers were found to be most efficient out of all the filter elements. Cloth 1(68% polyester and 32% cotton fabric) type having three layers was most efficient with 96.1 % filtering efficiency.
Open Access
Evaluation of soil compaction as affected by different tillage practices
(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2017) Abhishek Kumar; Saimbhi, Varinder Singh
A study for evaluating the soil compaction caused by different tillage practices was undertaken. The independent parameters for the study were two soil types (sandy loam, S1 and silty loam, S2), six different tillage practices (conventional tillage practice as P1, P2, rotavator practices as P3, P4 and spading machine as P5, P6), two forward velocity ranges (V1 and V2) and two operation depth ranges (D1 and D2). Replicated (three) trials in factorial in RBD were adopted for the study. Soil bulk density and cone index values were taken at selected sampling depths for determining the initial soil compaction i.e before tillage treatments. Effect of irrigation on soil compaction was also noted at optimum moisture level after irrigation but before tillage treatments. Cone indices of both types of soils were found lesser, after irrigation, than that of before irrigation conditions. Bulk density of soil S1 was higher after irrigation, whereas of soil S2, it was lower than that of before irrigation, before tillage conditions. Cone indices in both types of soils were observed lesser than that of initial compaction, in top 10 cm of soil, after different tillage treatments. Cone indices, at sub-soil depths (at 15 cm and beyond) of both soil types, in P3, P4, P5 and P6 tillage practices were found to be comparatively more that of initial soil compaction for most of the treatments. Bulk density was observed lower than that of initial soil compaction for all the treatments in both soil types. Mean weight diameter of soil clods formed were minimum whereas fuel consumption (l/h) values were maximum in case of rotavator among all the treatment values.
Open Access
Development and Evaluation of Metering Mechanism of Tractor Operated Multicrop Planter for Sowing of Okra (Abelmoschus Esculentus) Seed
(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2017) Manik, Badgujar Chetan; Dhingra, H.S.
Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) is one of the important vegetables in India and it is leading okra producing country in the world which contributes 72.9 per cent of world’s okra production. Sowing of okra is mostly done by manual method (kera and pora) this resulting in non-uniform inter-row and intra-row distribution of seeds that leads to seed cluster or gap filling, low input use efficiency and poor plant establishment. As a result, the yield and product quality are low and cost of cultivation is high. The seed coat of okra was very hard and does not take up water easily after sowing in the soil which causes very poor germination, thus to increase the germination of okra, sowing of soaked seed is common practice adopted. The engineering properties of two seed varieties (Pusa-A4 and Punjab-8) were studied for both soaked (24 h) and unsoaked condition and inclined plate was designed for sowing of soaked okra seeds. Subsequently the metering mechanism of okra planter was developed and mounted on a seed drill to make a multicrop planter. Preliminary evaluation of the developed planter was done in the laboratory on the basis of following parameters: three type of inclined plates (A, B and C), three angle of inclinations (45°, 50° and 55°) and four forward speeds of operation (1.0, 2.0, 3.0 and 4.0 km/h). The performance of planter was evaluated on the basis of number of seeds per meter row length, average spacing, multiple index, missing index, quality of feed index and seed rate. Based on average seed spacing and index values the best combination found in laboratory evaluation were selected for sowing of soaked okra seed and thus for Pusa-A4 it was plate A at 2 km/h forward speed and 45° angle of inclination of plate were selected for field evaluation of the machine and compared with control. The machine was used to sow soaked okra seed on flat field at two field location. The average spacing, quality feed index, missing index, multiple index and seed rate was observed 15.98 cm, 0.61, 0.17, 0.21 and 4.42 kg/acre respectively. The field capacity of machine was found 0.31 ha/h and fuel consumption during the sowing operation was 3.21 l/h. The germination count were 13.1 plants per 2 m row length after 15 DAS and 13.8 plants per 2 m row length after 30 DAS.
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STUDIES ON THE PERFORMANCE OF C.I. ENGINE USING ETHYL ESTER AS AN ALTERNATIVE FUEL
(PAU Ludhiana, 2011) Rajneesh Kumar; Anoop Kumar, Dixit
The agriculture sector of the country is mainly dependent on diesel for its motive power and to a large extent for power applications. Increased farm mechanization in agriculture, further increases requirement of this depleting fuel source. To overcome the problems associated with the use of petroleum derived fuels, it becomes necessary to develop alternative fuels with properties comparable to petroleum based fuels. Among the alternative fuels, biodiesel fuel has received much attention in recent years for use in diesel engines and could be one alternative in the country to reduce petroleum diesel import. Research has been done in the country using methanol. But, methanol is toxic in nature. Ethanol is derived from biomass. Ethyl ester derived from plant oils by using ethanol brings extra carbon atoms through ethanol molecule which slightly increases the heat content and the cetane number. Ethyl esters have lower cloud and pour points than the methyl esters. This fact improves the cold start of engine. Jatropha plant oil is non edible oil so it was selected for preparation of ethyl ester. The available Jatropha oil had high free fatty acid therefore, a twostep transesterification process was used to prepare ester for the study. Fuel characteristics of different blends of ethyl ester and diesel were determined in terms of kinematic viscosity (cS), gross heating value (MJ/kg), density (g/cm3), flash point (ºC), cloud point (ºC) and pour point (ºC) and were compared with that of pure diesel fuel. Thereafter, five blends of ester and diesel were used as fuel at four levels of loads i.e. 0%, 25%, 50%, and 75% of the rated load for engine performance study at two different compression ratio (16.5:1 and 18.5:1) and compare the results with the results obtained in case of diesel fuel. Maximum recovery of ester was obtained by pretreating the oil with 5% H2SO4 and 20% ethanol and then its transesterification using 30% ethanol and 3% KOH. Kinematic viscosity (cS), density (g/cm3), flash point (ºC), cloud point (ºC) and pour point (ºC) of all blends of ethyl esters (B10, B20, B30 and B40) were higher than that of diesel and gross heating values (MJ/kg) of all biodiesel blends were less as compared to diesel. Nitric oxide (NOx) emissions in case of all biodiesel blends were more as compared to diesel. NOx concentration in exhaust gases was increased with increase of ester in blends and also increased with increase in compression ratio. Carbon monoxide (CO) emission for all biodiesel blends was less as compared to diesel. CO concentration in exhaust gases was decreased with increase in percentage of ester in the blend and also decreased with increase in compression ratio. Brake thermal efficiency for all biodiesel blends was more as compared to diesel. Brake thermal efficiency increased with increase in load and also increased with increase in compression ratio. Brake specific fuel consumption in case of blends was more as compared to diesel. Brake specific fuel consumption decreased with increase in load as well as with increase in compression ratio.
Open Access
Performance evaluation of a tractor operated air assisted orchard sprayer
(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2016) Bathla, Rajan; Singh, S.K.
Performance evaluation of a tractor operated air assisted orchard sprayer had been undertaken. Hollow cone nozzles and double action nozzles were used to study the performance of the sprayer. The sprayer was tested in laboratory at four operating pressures (3, 4, 6 and 8 kg/cm2) and three blower speeds (1288, 1883 and 2541 rpm) to determine the suitable operational parameters for the sprayer. The combination of 8 kg/cm² pressure and 1288 rpm blower speed was found to be the suitable combination which was selected for field test. Sprayer was operated in the field at three forward speeds (0.76, 1.09 and 1.64 km/h), and different parameters were recorded and analyzed. Volume median diameter and uniformity coefficient for hollow cone nozzles varied from 162 to 300 µm and 1.62 to 2.88 respectively and for double action nozzles, it varied from 127 to 166 µm and 1.29 to 2.34 respectively. The droplet density on upper and underside of leaves for hollow cone nozzles varied from 43 to 178 and 69 to 301 drops/cm2 respectively and for double action nozzles, it varied from 72 to 203 and 51 to 98 drops/cm2 respectively. Volume of spray deposition on upper and underside of leaves for hollow cone nozzles varied from 107.4 × 10-6 to 383.79 × 10-6 cc/cm2 and 100.59 × 10-6 to 781.93 × 10-6 cc/cm2 respectively and for double action nozzles, it varied from 120.23 × 10-6 to 216.05 × 10-6 cc/cm2 and 54.76 × 10-6 to 172.15 × 10-6 cc/cm2 respectively.
Open Access
Development and Evaluation of Tractor Operated Header for Cotton Harvesting
(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2017) Mishra, Pramod Kumar; Manjeet Singh
A conceptual design of 3 row finger type cotton header was done by keeping in view the harvesting of locally grown cotton varieties and regional agronomic practices. Tractor operated cotton header was developed and fabricated in collaboration with industry. Based upon review, important design and operational parameters of as finger type cotton header such as finger length, finger spacing, finger angle and forward speed were selected for the study. Field evaluation data was collected for different dependent parameters selected for the study i.e. picking capacity, field capacity, picking efficiency and losses. There was significant effect of forward speed on picking capacity and field capacity for both of the varieties i.e. RCH-773 and F-2383. Maximum picking capacity was 1865.01 and 559.50 kg/h found at combination of 600 mm (FL2), 16 mm (FS1), 12 degree (A1) and 4.5 km/h (S2) for both the varieties i.e. RCH-773 and F-2383 respectively. There was significant effect of finger spacing on picking efficiency and losses for both the varieties i.e. RCH-773 and F-2383. Minimum losses were 3.54 and 5.11 % found at combination of 700 mm (FL1), 16 mm (FS1), 15 degree (A2) and 2.63 km/h (S1) for both the varieties i.e. RCH-773 and F-2383 respectively. The best combination of independent parameters for the machine was found with 700 mm finger length (FL1), 16 mm finger spacing (FS1), 15 degree finger angle (A2) and 4.5 km/h forward speed (S2). Trash content either on seed cotton or lint basis was minimum for boll crusher + pre cleaner method of cleaning which was even lesser than the trash content for cotton picked manually. Based upon the fibre quality parameters of harvested cotton cleaned by boll crusher + pre cleaner machine was of inferior quality but cotton cleaned by boll crusher machine was of superior quality. Harvesting done by cotton stripper using old tractor as well for new tractor can save cost upto 58.2 and 55.2 % respectively as compared to the hand picking.
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Ergonomic evaluation of walk behind type self propelled paddy transplanter
(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2016) Goyal, Gagandeep; Chhuneja, N. K.
The self propelled walk behind type paddy transplanters are gaining popularity as they require comparatively lesser initial investment and are easy to operate and maintain as compared to riding type. The ergonomic aspects of walk behind paddy transplanter are of great importance as the operator has to walk behind the machine for a distance of about 10-20 km for 8-hours a day and that also under puddled field conditions. Besides walking in field, stress due to mechanical vibrations, human workload, noise, etc. also affect performance of the operator. The research was planned to study the effect of operational parameters of walk behind self propelled paddy transplanter on physiological parameters, noise, vibrations and work-rest schedule. Hand-arm vibrations were the maximum along x-axis (vertical) and the minimum along y-axis (lateral). Soil type had non-significant effect on vibrations acceleration. However, vibrations increased with increase in forward speed of the paddy transplanter. The mean values of vibrations total value varied from 8.6 to 14.0 m/s2 among all the treatments. The equivalent 8-hours vibrations exposure was found to be ranging between 7.4 and 12.0 m/s2, which was very much higher than the limiting value of 2.8 m/s2 for safe operation of machine. The mean values of sound pressure level varied from 74.0 to 85.7 dB(A) among all the treatments. The mean values of oxygen consumption varied between 607.6 and 1052.6 ml/min with corresponding relative load between 18.1 and 37.3% among all the treatments. The mean values of energy expenditure rate varied between 12.7 and 22.0 kJ/min. The physiological workload was found to be in the category of light work at 1.3 and 1.8 km/h of forward speed of paddy transplanter; but, as moderate work at a forward speed of 2.3 km/h. The physiological responses viz. heart rate, volume of oxygen consumption, discomfort ratings and noise were within the desired limits at the maximum available forward speed of 2.3 km/h of the machine, which also gives the maximum possible field capacity. At this forward speed, a work schedule of about 45 minutes of operating the paddy transplanter followed by a rest of about 15 minutes is desired, which can be easily achieved if the two workers interchange their work after every 45 minutes.
Open Access
Development of Relationship between Remotely Sensed Data at Different Crop Growth Stages and Yield Monitor Data for Maize Crop
(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2016) Sanodiya, Rajeshwar; Manjeet Singh
The average yield of maize in India is only 2.47 tonnes/ha as against the global average of 5.47 tonnes/ha. To meet the food grain requirement of 480 million tonnes by the year 2050 in India, with the increasing challenges of biotic-abiotic stresses experienced by crops, introduction and adoption of modern technologies in Indian agriculture is inevitable. Precision farming is one of the technology which helps to find these goals. Monitoring of crop growth and forecasting its yield well before harvest is very important for better crop and food management. Hence, the study has been carried out to develop the empirical relationship between remotely sensed data at different crop growth stages and yield data for maize crop. Spectroradiometer, infrared camera, N-Tester and chlorophyll content meter (CCM) were used to collect data at different growth stages of the crop to develop relationship with the yield monitor data. The near infrared (NIR) camera was mounted on parrot AR. Drone 2.0 frame for image acquisition. Maize field was harvested by the combine harvester mounted with yield monitor to generate the yield map of the field. The average yield of the field recorded by yield monitor was 3913.9 kg/ha with standard deviation of 390.12 kg/ha and coefficient of variation of 9.33 %. The data revealed that the grid size has non-significant effect on yield and error at 5 % level of significance. Statistical linear regression models were used to develop empirical relationship between the sensor data and yield at three growth stages of maize crop. The yield prediction equations have maximum coefficient of determination (R²) i.e. 0.90, 0.84, 0.86 for NDVI (R630-690 and R760-900), N-Tester and NDVI (NIR camera) respectively at silking stage (R1). While for CCI, the maximum coefficient of determination i.e. 0.87 was observed at dough stage (R4). All sensor values like NDVI, CCI and N-tester values were positively correlated with yield data at all growth stages of maize. The data revealed a close linear relationship between NDVI (NIR camera) and NDVI (R630-690 and R760-900) with coefficient of determination (R2) value 0.80. Similarly there was a close relationship between CCI and N-tester values with coefficient of determination (R2) 0.79. It was concluded that the silking stage (R1 stage) i.e. 55 DAP was the most prominent stage for yield prediction using NDVI. Yield can be predicted 48 days before harvesting using reflectance data captured by spectroradiometer.
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Development and evaluation of tractor operated flail type forage harvester with chaffing system
(PAU, 2015) Goyal, Rajesh; Mahal, Jaskarn Singh
Fodder harvesting, transporting and its chopping is a major resource consuming component in dairy farming business. To do all the above three operation simultaneously, a tractor operated flail type forage harvester cum chopper was developed in the Dept of FM&PE, PAU. But machine could not become popular at farmer’s field because of uneven size of cut of fodder. Thus a study was undertaken to develop and evaluate a tractor operated flail type forage harvester with chaffing system. For this, flail unit of already developed machine was studied for different flail peripherial speeds ( 3 levels : 25, 29 & 35 m/s ) and forward speeds ( 3 levels : 2.5, 3.8 & 4.6 km/h ) for harvesting two types of fodder crops i.e Maize and Sorghum. Bulk density of fodder chopped by flails, height of cut, harvesting efficiency, flail throw efficiency were taken as performance parameters. Optimum combination of parameters were Flail peripherial speed of 35 m/s and forward speed of 2.5 km/hat which loss of fodder was minimum due to maximum flail throw efficiency and harvesting efficiency. The bulk density of fodder chopped by flails at these speeds was 103.5 kg/m3. A tractor operated flail type forage harvester with chaffing system was developed by replacing screw conveyer & blowing cum chopping mechanism with belt conveyer and positive feed chaffing system respectively. For this, design of belt conveyer and chaffing system was done considering the cropping intensity of fodder crop, bulk density of fodder chopped by flails and field capacity of machine at the optimum selected speed of machine. The developed machine was evaluated for three forward speeds (3 levels: 2.0, 2.5 & 3.0 km/h) and three conveyer speeds (3 levels: 0.55, 0.70 & 0.85 m/s) on two crops maize and sorghum. The forward speed of 2.0 km/h and conveyer speed of 0.55 m/swas foundto be best among all the studied parameters. The weighted size of cut of chopped fodderfor maize and sorghum fodder was 3.09 cm and 3.04 cm respectively. The fuel consumption, height of cut, harvesting efficiency, material capacity and field capacity for maize and sorghum fodderwas 6.25 l/h, 4.8 cm, 98.0 %, 6.53 t/h & 0.23 ha/h and 6.48 l/h, 4.9 cm, 98.5 %, 6.60 t/h & 0.23 ha/hrespectively.

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