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ThesisItem Restricted Identification of major abiotic bottlenecks in Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) productivity in Punjab(Punjab Agricultural University, 2024) Mahajan, Sakshi; Dr. Prabhjyot Kaur SidhuThe field experiment entitled, “Identification of major abiotic bottlenecks in Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) productivity in Punjab” was carried out at the Research Farm of the Dept of Climate Change and Agricultural Meteorology, PAU, Ludhiana during rabi 2022-23. Five wheat cultivars (Unnat PBW343, Unnat PBW550, PBW826, PBW869 and PBW824) were sown under six thermal environments (D1: 26th October, D2: 2nd November, D3: 9th November, D4: 16th November, D5: 23rd November and D6: 30th November) in a split plot design. The perusal of data revealed that the number of days required to complete the phenological stages were more under D1 followed by D2, D3, D4, D5 and D6. The cv Unnat PBW550 took least number of days to complete its life cycle. The LAI, tiller count periodic dry matter and PAR interception was more under thermal environment D1 and cv PBW826 while these parameters were more under late sown conditions in cv Unnat PBW550. The grain yield of wheat cultivars was reduced with delay in sowing by ~34 days (26th October to 30th November) by 40.7, 39.1, 46.0 and 42.6% in cv Unnat PBW343, PBW826, PBW869 and PBW824, respectively while in cv Unnat PBW550 the yield increased by 23.9% with delayed sowing. The GDD and PTU had positive relation with the yield and yield attributes amongst the four cultivars, while a negative relation was found with the cv Unnat PBW550. The weekly and monthly thumb rule models were developed using past 15 years meteorological data. It was concluded that the temperature and sunshine hours decreased from October till January and later from February onwards increased till April and the inverse happens with RH. The crop weather calendars that were developed will provide useful information regarding meteorological data for different growth stages and can be used to issue agro-advisories for crop yield prediction. The analysis revealed that high temperature was the cause of low yield during 2021-22 while rainfall during grain filling of wheat contributed to yield loss during 2014-15. Maximum/minimum temperature of 16-27/0-12oC, 14-23/3-10 oC and 25-36/10-20 oC during vegetative, flowering and physiological maturity stages, respectively were favourable for high yield of wheat in Punjab.ThesisItem Restricted Predicting wheat yield through artificial intelligence and crop growth simulation modelling in Punjab(Punjab Agricultural University, 2024) Akansha; Gill, K.K.The present study “Predicting wheat yield through artificial intelligence and crop growth simulation modelling in Punjab” was conducted at the Research Farm, Department of Climate Change and Agricultural Meteorology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, during the rabi season of 2022-23. The field experiment was conducted with three wheat varieties (V1: WH 1105, V2: Unnat PBW 550 and V3: PBW 590), three dates of sowing (D1: 25th October, D2: 15th November and D3: 5th December) and with two microclimatic interventions (Mo: control and M1: thiourea spray @ 1000 ppm). The experiment was laid out in “split plot design” with dates of sowing and cultivars in main plots and microclimatic interventions in sub-plots. Among all the three dates of sowing, October 25th exhibited the highest average soil temperature followed by November 15th, whereas, the lowest soil temperature was recorded under December 5th. Among the micrometeorological observation, it was found that crops sown on November 15th had the highest photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) interception. Among various cultivars, Unnat PBW 550 excelled in this regard. Regrading canopy temperature, the highest average temperature was observed on December 5th, followed by October 25th, while the lowest average temperature occurred on November 15th. Among the cultivars, PBW 590 had the highest maximum average canopy temperature, followed by WH 1105, whereas Unnat PBW 550 had the lowest temperature. Under all the dates of sowing, WH 1105 exhibited the longest duration to reach physiological maturity, attributed to its extended growth period compared to the other cultivars. The GDD requirement, HTU and PTU values were also found maximum for the cultivar WH 1105 followed by Unnat PBW 550 and PBW 590. Among the biometric parameters like chlorophyll content, plant height, dry matter accumulation, leaf area index, number of tillers and yield & yield attributing characters, highest values ware recorded for November 15th as compared to October 25th and December 5th. Cultivar-wise, Unnat PBW 550 performed best for all the biometric observations than the cultivar WH 1105 and PBW 590. Among the techniques used in artificial intelligence, MLP was the best technique and ELM was considered to be as the least effective for wheat yield prediction. Using the CERES- wheat model, the maximum observed and predicted average yield was recorded under November 15th. Among the cultivars, the maximum observed and predicted average yield was recorded for Unnat PBW 550.ThesisItem Restricted Quantification of crop bio-physical parameters in rice (Oryza sativa L.) varieties under different establishment methods using CROPWAT model(Punjab Agricultural University, 2023) Harmanpreet; Som Pal SinghA field experiment was conducted at the Research Farm, Department of Climate Change and Agricultural Meteorology, PAU, Ludhiana and Rice Section of Department of Plant Breeding &Genetics during kharif 2022. Three rice varieties (PR 121, PR 126, PR 128) of different age seedlings (20 days,30 days and 40 days) were transplanted on different establishment methods-flat and ridge transplanting method. The experiment was laid out in factorial Split Plot Design. The results indicated that PAR interception was higher in ridge planting method as compared to flat method of transplanting with 30 days old age seedlings. The grain yield was recorded highest in ridge (73.8 q/ha) as compared to the flat method (71.0 q/ha). In the case of varieties, the highest grain yield was recorded in PR 126 (77.0 q/ha) followed by PR 128 (73.4 q/ha) and PR 121 (66.9 q/ha). In the case of 30 days old age seedlings transplanted (74.2 q/ha) were recorded as highest followed by 20 days old age seedlings (73.9 q/ha) and then 40 days old age seedlings (69.1q/ha). Total water productivity was recorded higher in ridge method of transplanting (0.42 kg/m3) as compared to flat method of planting (0.37 kg/m 3 ). In case of genotype, total water productivity recorded higher in PR 126 (0.46 kg/m3) followed by PR 128(0.38 kg/m3) and PR 121 (0.34 kg/m3) and in case of old age seedlings,30 days old age seedlings recorded highest water productivity (0.41 kg/m3) followed by 20 days and 40 days old age seedlings.ThesisItem Open Access Quantification of evapotranspiration using EEFLUX tool and comparison by empirical methods in maize (Zea mays L.)(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2022) Deepan R; Som Pal SinghEvapotranspiration (ET) is one of the most important parameter in agriculture and to water management and irrigation requirement. Under the present scenario of Climate change and Global warming, importance of ET measurement and its validation assumes a great significance. There are various techniques used to estimate actual measurement of ET in the field condition. However, researchers have developed state of the art instrument to measure it in the field condition and instruments of varying accuracy are available. The instrument can measure point value of ET for being placed at particular location in the field and therefore the spatial accuracy of the data is bound to reduce to a certain extent. On the other hand, the empirical estimation of ET has its own limitation owing to the requirement of huge data set to estimate the ET to near accuracy. Google EEFlux is a web-based tool which utilizes the satellite-based information to provide the ET rate on spatio-temporal scale. Therefore, an effort has been put forth to estimate ET using the Google EEFlux for maize crop. The ET has been estimated using the Google EEFlux for maize crop sown in the field experiment at the Research Farm, Department of Climate Change and Agricultural Meteorology, PAU during the kharif season of 2020-21. The ET was also computed using Penman’s equation geeSEBAL, NRSC-NHP, Cropwat 8.0 and FAO Ref-ET calculator for PMH-1 and PMH-2 varieties of maize during the same period grown under three sowing environments. The relationships were developed between ET (Google EEFlux), ET (geeSEBAL), ET(NRSCNHP) and ET (FAO-ETo calculator). The relationships indicated a significant association between the ET obtained by both these methods. The data generated can help the researchers to fine tune treatments and also to reorient the irrigation and management research programs.ThesisItem Embargo Water footprint assessment of cotton-wheat cropping system in south-western Punjab(Punjab Agricultural University, 2022) Veerpal Kaur; Mishra, Sudhir KumarThe present study entitled, “Water footprint assessment of cotton-wheat cropping system in south western Punjab” has been carried out at Punjab Agricultural University, Regional Research Station, Faridkot in cotton during Kharif season 2021 and in wheat during Rabi season 2021-22. A field experiment having eighteen treatments was laid out in a Randomized complete block design with three replications. Four nitrogen levels viz., 100 % (recommended dose of nitrogen @ 112.5 kg ha-1) and 125 % of RDN were fertigated in either 10 and/or 14 equal splits at 10 days interval for cotton while for wheat, 100 % of RDNP (recommended dose of nitrogen @ 125 kg ha-1 and phosphorus @ 62.5 kg ha-1) and 80% were fertigated in either 8 and/or 10 equal splits at 7 days interval. The subsurface fertigation was executed under two lateral depths [25 cm (L1) and 30 cm (L2)] and two emitter spacings [30 cm (S1) and 40 cm (S2)]. In addition, two extra control treatments including surface flood method (control 1) and existing recommendation of sub-surface drip fertigation at 20 cm lateral depth and 20 cm emitter spacing with 100 % RDN in cotton and 80 % RDNP in wheat (control 2) were also evaluated. Results revealed that in cotton-wheat cropping system, subsurface drip system established at 25 cm lateral depth along with 30 cm emitter spacing (L₁S₁F4) recorded 24.9 % higher seed cotton yield and 17.3 % higher wheat grain yield over subsurface drip system installed at 30 cm lateral depth with 40 cm emitter spacing (L2S2F4). However, in comparison to surface flood method (control 1) the existing recommendation of subsurface drip fertigation system (control 2) recorded 36.1 % higher seed cotton yield and 25.6 % better wheat grain yield. In both crops, the improved growth and yield parameters under L₁S₁F₄ were evident mainly due to favourable micro-climatic conditions like lower canopy temperature coupled with better physiological parameters such as relative water content, chlorophyll content, rate of photosynthesis and stomatal conductance. In cotton, subsurface drip fertigation of 125 % RDN with 14 splits (L1S1F₄) at 10 day interval through lateral placed at 25 cm (L₁) depth having 30 cm emitter spacing (S₁) recorded lowest water footprint (2.3 m³ kg⁻¹). The conventional cotton crop receiving surface flood irrigation and manual fertilizers broadcasting (control 1) resulted into higher water footprint (3.6 m³ kg⁻¹). Similarly, in wheat crop, sub-surface drip fertigation of 100 % RDNP into 10 splits at 7 day interval (F₄) having 25 cm laterals depth (L₁), and 30 cm emitter spacing (S₁) exhibited minimum water footprints (1.1 m³ kg⁻¹). Contrarily, reduced dose of 80 % RDNP supplied in 8 splits at 30 cm lateral depth and 40 cm emitter spacing under T13 treatment (L₂S₂F₁) resulted in higher water footprint (1.5 m³ kg⁻¹). In cotton-wheat cropping system, maximum water footprint (5.06 m³ kg⁻¹) was recorded under surface flood irrigation (control 1) however, minimum water footprint (3.38 m³ kg⁻¹) has been observed under L1S1F4. Among different treatments in cotton-wheat cropping system, total water footprint increased by 14 % in L₂ (30 cm) than L₁ (25 cm). Similarly, 7.5 % more water footprint was recorded in wider spacing (S₂=40 cm) as compared to the narrower spacing (S₁=30 cm) of emitters. A reduced water footprint to the tune of 22.1 % was evident under control 2 as compared to control 1 (surface flood method). Similarly, water footprint under F₄ was reduced by 3.2, 8.0 and 13.2 % over F₃, F₂ and F₁, respectively. Therefore, fertigation with higher splits through subsurface drip system having 25 cm lateral depth and 30 cm emitter spacing was found to be suitable for higher productivity and lower water footprints in cotton – wheat cropping system.ThesisItem Open Access Computation and validation of different agroclimatic indices for wheat(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2023) Manpreet Kaur; Dhaliwal, L.K.The field experiment was conducted at the Research Farm, Department of Climate Change and Agricultural Meteorology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana during rabi season of 2021-22. The wheat varieties viz., PBW 1 Zn, PBW 725, Unnat PBW 343 and PBW 752 were sown on October 26, November 8, November 16 and November 23. The crop was sown in Randomised complete block design with four replications. The recommended Package of Practices by PAU were followed for raising the crop. The micrometeorological parameters viz. photosynthetically active radiation (PAR), canopy temperature and relative humidity within canopy were recorded at periodic intervals. Biometric observations such as leaf area index (LAI) and dry matter accumulation (DMA) were recorded periodically. The yield and yield contributing characteristics were recorded at the time of harvesting. The wheat yield data of Ludhiana district from 2000-2001 to 2021-22 were collected and corresponding meteorological data on different parameters were obtained from Agrometeorological Observatory. Different agroclimatic indices viz., growing degree days, heliothermal units, photo-thermal units, pheno-thermal index, hygro-thermal units and relative temperature disparity were computed at different phenological stages. Heat use efficiency, helio-thermal use efficiency, photo-thermal use efficiency and radiation use efficiency were computed during rabi 2021-22. The results indicates that growing degree days, photo-thermal units, hygro-thermal units and relative temperature disparity were higher in October 26 sowing as compared to November 23 sowing. Whereas, helio-thermal units were higher in November 23 sowing. Heat use efficiency, helio-thermal use efficiency and photo-thermal use efficiency were higher in October 26 sown crop as compared to November 23 sown crop for total biomass and grain yield.The results showed that crop sown on November 23 experienced higher canopy temperature at reproductive stages as compared to October 26 sown crop. The grain yield was significantly higher in October 26 sowing (44.3 q ha-1) as compared to November 23 (39.2q ha-1) for variety Unnat PBW 343. Historical data on wheat yield and meteorological parameters were analysed from 2002-03 to 2021-22. The extreme heat wave years (2003-04, 2008-09 and 2021-22) indicates that maximum and minimum temperatures were higher than normal by 4 to 5°C during reproductive stage and no rainfall due to absence of western disturbances in the month of February and March was responsible for yield reduction. Temperature condition index was lower at reproductive phase and positively correlated with grain yield. Lower the values of temperature condition index, higher was the stress condition in the wheat crop and viceversa. The crop remained under stress in October 26 and November 8 sowing for 45 days whereas for November 16 and November 23 remained for 60 days. It means that late sown crop (November 16 and November 23) faced stress at heading stage and remained under stress for longer period as compared to early sowing (October 26 and November 8) which faced the moderate stress at anthesis stage.ThesisItem Restricted Weather based forewarning of wheat diseases using artificial neural networks under Punjab conditions(Punjab Agricultural University, 2023) Shubham Anand; Sandhu, Sarabjot KaurThe field experiments were carried out at the Research Experiment Farm, Department of Climate Change and Agricultural Meteorology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana and Regional Research Station, Gurdaspur during rabi seasons of 2021-22 and 2022-23. The experiment was laid out in Split Plot Design with three wheat varieties viz., PBW 725, HD 2967 and HD 3086 sown on different dates (14th-15th October, 8th-9th November and 3rd-4th December) with two microclimate modification levels M1 (recommended irrigation) and M2 (additional water sprays) with four replications. The micrometeorological parameters viz., photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) and relative humidity within crop canopy were recorded at different phenological stages. Weekly observations on severity of yellow rust, brown rust, foliar blight and incidence of Karnal bunt at harvest were determined under different treatments. Among the three different sowing dates, the yellow rust severity in variety HD 2967 was reported to be highest (56.14%, 56.17%) at Ludhiana and Gurdaspur (56.75%, 58.42%) in early sowing under M2 than other treatments during rabi 2021-22 and 2022-33, respectively. The brown rust severity was higher (65.44%, 68.21%) at Ludhiana and Gurdaspur (61.76%, 63.5%) in early sowing under M2 than other treatments during rabi 2021-22 and 2022-33, respectively. It was observed that early date of sowing (15th October) recorded higher foliar blight severity (28.52%, 29.35%) at Ludhiana and Gurdaspur (21.69%, 30.65%) in variety HD 3086 in M2 than other treatments during rabi 2021-22 and 2022-23. The Karnal bunt disease incidence was relatively higher at Ludhiana (17.9% and 11.6%) and Gurdaspur (21.4% and 15.9%) in variety PBW 725 under M2 during normal sowing than other treatments during both the years of study, respectively. From correlation coefficient and regression analysis, it was concluded that temperature (maximum and minimum), sunshine hours and rainfall were observed as key parameters in spread of wheat diseases. Grain yield during rabi 2021-22 and rabi 2022-23 were higher in early sowing (43.3q/ha, 48.1 q/ha) at Ludhiana and Gurdaspur (44.5 q/ha, 50.8 q/ha) than other dates of sowing during both the years under study. In variety x microclimate modification levels treatments, grain yield was higher (43.1q/ha, 47.2q/ha) at Ludhiana and Gurdaspur (44.0 q/ha, 50.2 q/ha) in variety PBW 725 under M1 than other treatments during both years under study. Early date of sowing recorded more yield losses followed by late and normal sowing and losses were more at Gurdaspur as compared to Ludhiana. Average yield losses during rabi 2022-23 were higher i.e. 5.6% and 7.1% as compared to 1.6% and 2.3% during rabi 2021-22 at Ludhiana and Gurdaspur, respectively. From in vitro study, it was observed that urediniospore germination of pathotypes of Puccinia striiformis and Puccinia triticina was maximum at 15°C and 20°C, respectively at pH 7.0 and 1250 lux light intensity. So, if high temperatures along with sunny days prevail rust can flourish in wheat fields. The random forest regression (RF) for February month, support vector regression (SVR) for March month, SVR and BLASSO for 15 February to 15 March period and random forest for overall period surpassed the performance than other models for forewarning of Karnal bunt. From the CART analysis, it can be inferred that maximum yellow rust severity can occur if >9.2 sunshine hours/day and >9.1oC minimum temperature occurs or, dew point temperature is >14oC and mean temperature is <15oC or dew point temperature is < 14oC and humid thermal index is <2.4.ThesisItem Restricted Identification of heat and cold wave period and its effect on cotton-wheat yield in south-west Punjab using geospatial technology(Punjab Agricultural University, 2023) Gawai, Anjusha Sanjay; R.K. PalThe present study focused on Bathinda district in extreme South-West Punjab, analyzing a 23-year span (2000-2022) of heat and cold wave occurrences. Noteworthy heat wave years were (2000, 2010 and 2022), displayed a pattern of rising instances followed by fluctuations and decline while severe heat waves exhibited sporadic variations. Concentrated heat waves were observed during wheat growing seasons (March-April), while cotton faced higher frequencies during May-June. Cold wave instances showed decreasing trend consistently, with prominent years (2008, 2005, 2012) marked by heightened occurrences. Notably, yield simulations using CERES-wheat and CROPGRO-cotton models accurately matched observed yields, demonstrating predictive potential (wheat: R2=0.72, RMSE=336.5, d-stat=0.90; cotton: R2=0.67, RMSE=407.1, d-stat=0.84).The observed associations between Land Surface Temperature (LST) and air temperature during heat waves (R2=0.80), as well as the negative correlations between LST and Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) (R2=0.69) during the same periods. On the other hand, the relationships established between LST and minimum air temperature during cold waves (R2=0.49), as well as between LST and NDVI (R2=0.14) during cold wave periods. Six wheat growing and five cotton growing period showcased below-normal yields and prominent heat wave occurrences, confirmed by a significant correlation (R2=0.71 and R2=0.78) between their yield and NDVI. Three years experienced below-normal wheat yields during cold wave events surpassing the normal threshold. The implications of these findings extend to projections (2023-2050), predicting potential wheat yield losses due to heightened heat wave occurrences and reduced yields stemming from intensified cold wave days as well as cotton yield due to increased heat waves. This study provides a comprehensive exploration of the intricate relationship between heat and cold wave occurrences and their profound influence on cotton and wheat yields, augmented by a visionary glimpse into potential future scenarios, thereby illuminating the challenges that lie ahead for South-West Punjab's agricultural landscape.ThesisItem Restricted Management practices for the optimization of rice (Oryza sativa L.) yield for RCP based climatic scenarios under Punjab conditions(Punjab Agricultural University, 2023) Aryal, Anupama; Sidhu, Prabhjyot KaurA study was conducted to analyse the changes in yield and phenology of rice under the future scenarios (RCPs 2.6, 4.5, 6.0 and 8.5) at different agroclimatic zones (AZ) of Punjab. The ensemble model (http://gismap.ciat . cgiar.org/MarkSimGCM/) simulated an increase in maximum and minimum temperature with decrease in rainfall in AZ II, III and IV during the 21st century. The CERES-Rice (Ver 4.7.5) was used to analyse the yield trend and their deviations for cv PR 126 and PR 127 during the mid-century (2025-54) and end-century (2061-90) from the baseline period (2010-2020). The CERES-Rice model was calibrated and validated using the crop data collected under the mandatory trial of “All India Co-ordinated Research Project on Agrometeorology” during crop year 2020. The calibration and validation showed the simulated results to be close to the observed with a low NRMSE for anthesis, maturity, grain yield and LAI of 0.89/0.77, 0.86/0.54, 1.09/1.98, and 4.33/3.00%, respectively for PR 126/ PR 127. The yield and LAI showed a polynomial relationship with high grain yield /peak LAI during 24 to 30 June as 8425-8473 kgha-1/4.23-4.24 for cv PR 126 and during 20 to 26 June as 8298-8356 kgha-1/4.20-4.21 for cv PR 127. The model was used to study the future rice yield trend and their deviations from the baseline and optimization practices. The simulated rice yield trend for the current transplanting dates showed a strong deviation at AZ II :55 and 58%, III : 67 and 70%, IV :53 and 44% and V :57 and 55% for PR 126 and PR 127, respectively while the maturity was shortened by 8-11 days during the EC under RCP8.5. The optimized transplanting window (1 June to 16 July) was evaluated and the results showed the later dates of transplanting to perform well at all zones except at AZV (Abohar). The 20-25 days old seedlings, plant population of 28 plants/m2 and fertilizer dose of 158 kgN/ha gave optimum yield of rice for AZ II, III, IV and V (Faridkot). The cv PR 126 yielded better as compared to PR 127 at all the locations. The results revealed that rice cultivation in AZ V especially at Abohar would not be viable option for farmers.
