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Study on resource use planning for sustainability of Punjab agriculture
(Punjab Agricultural University, 2023) Esar, Bashir Ahmad; Sachdeva, Jatinder
The use of natural resources in Punjab agriculture, especially irrigation water is facing a crisis. A proper and sustainable plan is needed for their optimal use. Therefore, the current study has been conducted to develop alternative crop plans by incorporating technologies such as wheat sown using happy seeder (HS), direct-seeding of rice (DSR), and short-duration varieties (SDVs) of paddy. The technique of linear programming has been used to develop the optimum plans using data collected under the “Comprehensive scheme for studying the cost of cultivation of principal crops in Punjab” pertaining to the year 2018-19. The results revealed that for optimum utilization of available resources and maximizing the returns, the area under paddy, guar, and potato crops need to be reduced while the area under maize, basmati, sugarcane, cotton, moong, barley, sunflower, and peas need to be increased. By adopting the optimal plans developed with existing resource use and technologies of (HS, DSR, and SDVs) the returns can be increased by 2.52 to 8.63 per cent, along with saving in irrigation water use ranging from 4.65 to 4.96 per cent. Similarly, by adopting the optimal plans with irrigation water use restricted to 90% of its current level will increase returns by 1.6 to 9%. The optimal plans will help in increasing the use of underutilized human labour, and reducing the use of chemical fertilizers presently having much higher use than the recommended levels and reducing the cost of cultivation along with a positive impact on environment. For the optimum plans with irrigation water use restricted to 80 per cent although the returns will decline but the government may compensate the farmers for their losses from the savings on providing subsidies to supply free electricity to the farmers for extracting groundwater to irrigate their fields. Further, the subsidy money saved can be utilized to develop agricultural infrastructure and offering competitive prices for less irrigation water-requiring crops along with saving precious irrigation water to stop the downward movement of ground water level.
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Study on Women Empowerment among Farm Households in Punjab
(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2022) Jain, Mehak; Sharma, Shalini
Women in India are the backbone of the society and important resource in agriculture and rural economy. They make essential contributions to the agricultural development, allied, household activities and pursue multiple livelihood strategies. Participation of women in agriculture varies from region to region in Punjab. So, the present study was an attempt to measure women empowerment and gender parity among farm households with specific objectives: (i) to study socio-economic profile of women respondents in selected farm households (ii) to measure empowerment of women among selected farm households (iii) to find out gender parity in selected households (iv) to identify challenges faced by women and suggest the way forward. The present study was conducted in three agro-climatic zones of Punjab state namely sub-mountainous zone, central plain zone and south-western zone. One district was randomly selected from each zone i.e. Hoshiarpur, Ludhiana and Ferozepur. Two blocks from each selected district and three villages from each block were selected randomly for the purpose of present investigation. From each selected block, forty households based on probability proportionate to three categories of farm household i.e. small, medium, large were selected randomly. Total sample size was of 240 farm households. The study found that one third of farm women were either illiterate or lowly educated, majority were not gainfully employed, were engaged in household chores (89.7%). The study found that still 12 per cent of respondents had no mobile phones of their own and half (50.8%) of farm women were not able to do any banking operations Also, majority (93.3%) of respondents had no ownership of land. Study disclosed edge of zone1 farm women in human resources followed by zone 2 and zone 3 but did not find significant difference amongst different farm size categories. Large farm households had better level of material resources. Zone 1 had high level of social resource followed by zone 2 and zone 3 and small farm women had an edge over the large farm women in this resource. In agency aspect too significant zonal association was found with zone 1 leading in it. Psychological wellbeing had significant association with farm size category while physical wellbeing showed zonal association. Among household challenges, patriarchal norms (2.04) was found major challenge (Rank I) while at community level farm women were deprived of legal rights (rank I) and unsupportive community ethics (rank II). Lack of capacity building avenues (rank I) was the challenge at market level. Government intervention is strongly needed especially in central and south western zone for training of farm women in alternative skills to promote their self-employment and financial security and hence their empowerment. Agency aspect of women need to be strengthened through education, inclusive cultural norms and family support
Open Access
Infrastructure, functioning and labour scenario in regulated markets of Punjab
(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2022) Lovepreet Singh; Goyal, Mini
Agricultural regulated markets have been playing a pivotal role in the overall economic development of a country. Therefore the present study has been designed to examine the status of infrastructure, functioning and labour scenario in the regulated markets of Punjab. The stratified random sampling technique was used to select the sample. The study was conducted in three agro-climatic zones of Punjab during the year 2019-20 and from each zone three markets i.e. small, medium and large markets were selected. A sample of 10 farmers and 10 labourers were taken from each market. For the selection of e-NAM markets, one market was randomly selected from each zone and a sample of 20 farmers was selected from each market. The study highlighted that number of regulated markets was increased from 1980-81 to 2019-20. Consequently there was a decline in average area and number of villages severed per market which in turn ensured betterment in number of regulated markets in the state. Growth in the number of regulated markets resulted in increase in the procurement of wheat and paddy in the state. Results of infrastructure development index revealed that large markets were equipped with better infrastructure facilities. Problem of lack of space and inadequate covered sheds were the major problems faced by famers. The efficiency of the regulated markets were computed and it was found that large markets were financially and managerially more efficient due to higher income, better management of income, employees, marketed surplus and produce. Markets were not organizationally efficient on the basis of staff strength and distance traveled by farmers. Mandi labourers got total employment for 297 days during a year including 126 days in regulated markets with income of Rs 57261.34 per annum and 171 days in other than market works by earning Rs.45059.64 per annum. In Punjab, about 2.16 lakh farmers, 2288 traders and 8376 commission agent were registered with e-NAM. It was found that e-NAM markets had a positive impact on prices. The factors like availability of electronic equipment’s followed by operational holding, age were the most influential determinants to participate in e-NAM system.
Open Access
Technical efficiency and Economic viability of small and marginal farms in Punjab
(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2021) Sharma, Isha; Sekhon, M.K.
The present study has been designed to study cost of cultivation of major crops of the state to review the technical efficiency and economic viability of the marginal as well as the small farms of Punjab. The sample of 280 farmers (121 marginal and 159 small farmers), spread over all the major agro-climatic zones of Punjab was collected for the year 2014-15, 2015-16 and 2016-17. The study highlighted that in the Punjab state, the per hectare cost of cultivation of crops namely paddy, wheat, maize and cotton was observed to be slightly lower for small farms in comparison to marginal farms. The crop farming based on cost C2 showed negative returns on both the categories of farms in all the zones, except Central Punjab. An estimate of yield gap revealed that paddy and maize witnessed maximum yield gap in zone-II and I respectively, while cotton and wheat showcased maximum yield gap in zone-III. The mean technical efficiency of crop production for the state was 75.78 per cent. It has been found that factors like experience and education of the farmer were the most influential determinants of technical efficiency of crop production in the state. In Punjab, 83.47 per cent of the marginal farmer and 61.01 per cent of the small farmers were non sustainable. The economic size of holding was worked out to be 4.94 acre which indicates that on the basis of crop income, farmers having 4.94 acres of land will be able to sustain in long run. The study further highlighted that 71.07 per cent of the marginal farmers and 24.53 of the small farmers were not economically viable depending only upon the income earned from crop and dairy farming. Income from off-farm sources is the only factor, which helps the farmers to become viable. The study revealed that income from off-farm and dairy sources should be enhanced while domestic expenditure must be trimmed down in order to turn the non-viable farms into viable ones.
Open Access
Economic Analysis of Production, Marketing and Post Harvest Losses of Tomato Crop in Punjab
(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2021) Gurleen Kaur; Parminder Kaur
The present study was undertaken to examine the economics of production, resource use efficiency, marketing efficiency and to estimate the post harvest losses in tomato crop in Punjab. The primary data for the year 2019-20 were collected from 200 tomato growing farmers comprised of 40 small, 81 medium and 79 large farmers of Patiala and Amritsar districts. It was observed that average operational holding with the respondent farmers was 15.25 acres in which only 6.94 acres were under tomato crop and the average area under tomato was found to be highest among large farms (15.79 acres) followed by medium (3.39 acres) and small farms (1.63 acres). The overall distribution of area under tomato in kharif season, zaid season and rabi season was 2.18 per cent, 14.72 per cent and 1.83 per cent respectively of the gross cropped area. Overall, the variable and fixed cost constituted about 59.02 per cent and 40.97 per cent respectively of the total cost in tomato production. The share of human labour was highest among the variable costs which were 50.29 per cent. The gross returns were higher among large farmers i.e. Rs. 1.31lakh followed by medium i.e. Rs. 1.23 lakh and small farm size category i.e. Rs. 1.22 lakh. Per quintal profit margin was estimated to the tune of Rs. 116.36, Rs.99.64 and Rs. 108.41on small, medium and large farm size categories respectively. The results of Cobb-Douglas production function revealed that the regression coefficients of human labour, fertilizers, insecticides, other micro nutrients and dummy variable for district were observed positive and significant influence on yield from tomato production but the coefficient of area under tomato was found negative and significant. The coefficient of dummy variable for district was found negative indicating average yield of Amritsar district was found significantly lower than Patiala district due to the difference in their methods of cultivation (bamboo staking vs open field cultivation), soil type, varietal difference, location specification in terms of access to services and input management methods. The ratios of MVP to MFC were found to be less than one indicating over utilization of fertilizers, insecticides, human labour and other micro nutrients by the tomato growers. The marketed surplus was found less in case of large farmers (93.63%) than small (94.62%) and medium farmers (94.09%). The results revealed that the maximum number of farmers i.e. 75 per cent sold their produce in wholesale market (Punjab) followed by sale to pre-harvest contractor cum processor (13%), sale in distant markets (6.50%), sale in apni mandi (4%) and sale from farm to distant wholesalers (1.50%). The marketing efficiency in both the districts was higher in Channel-III (Producer-Consumer) indicating the most efficient channel than other channels. The per acre pre and post harvest losses in Patiala and Amritsar district were estimated to be 30.32 quintals and 26.59 quintals respectively and overall total losses at different levels in tomato production were estimated to be 8.76 per cent of total losses. Losses due to blight disease and fruit borer attack accounted for 17.64 per cent and 21.24 per cent of the total pre and post harvest losses. Of the total losses, 69.89 per cent of the losses occurred at farm level followed by 19.68 per cent and 10.46 per cent losses at commission agent cum wholesaler level and retailer level respectively. Age of the farmer was having a negative and significantly affecting the total post harvest losses at farm level whereas inadequate labour and inadequate transportation facilities was found to have positive coefficient and significant implying lower level of post harvest losses. Major production constraints faced by the tomato growers were damaged or diseased plant problem, unavailability and high labour charges were due to shortage of labour during peak season, high production expenditure, lack of awareness about recommended dose of inputs and untimely availability of inputs while low prices in a peak production period, spoilage of tomato was high, farmers sell immediately after harvest, nonavailability and high cost of transportation, lack of market information, lack of processing units and cold storage facilities and high marketing costs were major marketing constraints faced by the tomato growers. The study brought out that Government should ensure the supply of hybrid seeds to tomato growers at subsidized rates, establish more farmers’ markets/apni mandis and necessary infrastructure such as packing houses, pre cooling units and cold storage facilities in production areas and near the market place, adoption of integrated pest management practices at farmer’s level and need of crop insurance to compensate the farmers even when there is high occurrence of pest and diseases.
Open Access
Income and inequality among farm households in Punjab
(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2021) Saini, Rohit; Manjeet Kaur
The present study was conducted to examine the farm-size productivity relationship, level of income, extent of inequality and to decompose sources of income inequality among farm households in Punjab. The study was based on the data of National Sample Survey Organization (NSSO) 70th round. The data pertained to the agricultural year 2012-13. The results revealed that majority of the farm households in Punjab belonged to general category (84.41%) followed by OBC (9.32%) and SC/ST group (6.28%). The average family size of the farm household was 5.49 members. There were around six per cent of the farm households headed by female members. The average operational holdings across different farm-size categories were 0.47, 1.40, 2.76, 6.00 and 14.81 hectares for marginal, small, semimedium, medium and large farms, respectively. The wheat and paddy were two main crops of rabi and kharif seasons, respectively. Farm-size and productivity analysis was conducted at two levels i.e., crop-wise analysis for wheat crop and farm level analysis for kharif, rabi and all crops. Farm-size and input use relationship was also studied. There was positive and significant correlation between area under the wheat crop and productivity. For kharif crops, the farm-size and productivity relationship between productivity and cropped area was found to be significant and positive. Same results were observed for rabi crops and all crops. Farmsize and input-use relationship was positive for fertilizers, plant protection chemicals, hired labour, diesel while negative for hiring machinery. The main source of farm household income was crops (81.89%), followed by salaries (8.67%), livestock (6.61%) and non-farm business (2.32%). The distribution of income among farm households was highly skewed. The Gini coefficient was estimated at 0.50 among the farm households. Using Theil index, it was analyzed that the inequality within farm-size categories (0.27) was higher than the inequality between categories (0.18). Livestock came out to be inequality decreasing factor in overall decomposition as well as intra class decomposition of income inequality. Cooperative farming, strengthening of dairy sector, promotion of agro-processing industries and establishment of skill development centers were suggested policy implications of the study.
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Changing income and employment structure of agricultural labour in Punjab
(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2020) Gurlal Singh; Sharma, V. K.
The present study has been designed to investigate the income and employment structure, decomposition pattern and impactofdifferentfactorsaffecting demand for agricultural labourin Punjab. The primary data was collected from 270 agricultural labourers in three different agro-climatic zones of state and secondary data was extracted from state and centrally sponsored projects. The results of the study showed that the share of agricultural workforce declined from 55.25 per cent in 1991 to 30 per cent during the period, 2011. The compound annual growth rate showed that there was decline in casual agricultural labour to the tune of 4.06-man days per hectare annually since 1990. The income of agricultural labour household was observed as `10615.95 per month and consumption expenditure of farm laboures was recorded as `11493.93 per month. On an average the liabilities of agricultural labourers as debt was `57143 and average value of owned household assets was `225701. The poverty head count ratio was recorded as 8.89 per cent. The major reasons for casualisation of farm labour were overuse of permanent labour hours by the farmers and influx of cheap migrant labour in the state. The higher wage rate and freedom of work were the main reasons for the contractualisation of agricultural labour. The farm labour employment was declined as 18.17 hours per hectareduring 2008-09 to 2015-16. The decomposition of declined agriculture labour employment showed that the technology replaced 28.56 hours of farm labour. Contrary to this, cropping intensity contributed an increase in agriculture labour demand as 12.35 hours per hectare during the same period. It was observed that one per cent increase in the cropping intensity would incline the use of labour by 1.33 per cent, while one per cent increase in wage rate would decline the labour demand by 4.7 per cent. The agriculture laboures household of the state facing the problem of illiteracy, healthcare, debt burden, use of drugs, less availability of farm work, and deprived economic condition. The study brings into account that during the last two and half decades, most of the zones experienced a significant decrease in use of agriculture demand in the state. It was concluded that agricultural labour use pattern changed as permanent to casual and to contractual in the state.
Open Access
Food Security and Sustainability: A comparative study of Punjab and Uttar Pradesh
(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2020) Singh, Priyanka; Goyal, Mini
Ensuring food security has been the central theme of agricultural development policy. Therefore, studies are being increasingly taken up to assess the food security status from national perspective in recent past. Since, precise assessment of regional food security and its sustainability is prerequisite for strategic planning and prioritizing allocation of resources; the present study ascertained the sustainability of food security in the most populous and productive states of India i.e. Punjab and Uttar Pradesh. The study, using secondary data, examined the growth performance of foodgrains over a comprehensive period of TE1990/91TE2016/17 and for the three decadal periods viz., TE1990/91-TE2000/01, TE2000/01- TE2010/11 and TE2010/11-TE2016/17 at national level and for the selected states. The production of food grains shows an impressive and significant growth (CAGR 1.60%) at national level during the whole period as well as in the sub periods with the highest growth in TE2010/11-2016/17 (CAGR 1.70%). Unlike in Uttar Pradesh, where foodgrains witnessed productivity led growth during the overall period; both increase in area and yield contributed in production growth of foodgrains in Punjab. The district wise composite index of sustainable food security for the selected states has been constructed from its components – food availability, access and utilization. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) technique was used to assign weights to indicators of each dimension of food security. In Punjab, the sustainability of food security increased as one moves from southern to northern parts of the state. Districts in the western (Fazilka, Muktsar etc.) and southern (Mansa and Sangrur) part of Malwa region of the state were rated low in sustainable food security index. In Uttar Pradesh, large number of district fell into the moderate range of sustainable food security index. The results of the study will support the decision makers in implementing suitable policy measures to address regional food insecurity in both the states.
Open Access
Implications of Increasing Road Accidents – A Study of Ludhiana City and National Highway-95 (NH95)
(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2020) Kaler, Simrathjit Kaur; Sukhdev Singh
The present study was conducted to assess the increasing road accidents and its implications by taking Ludhiana city and National Highway 95 as the area of study. Based on 300 respondents, consisting 150 respondents each from NH95 and Ludhiana city selected by purposive sampling technique, study led to conclusion that accident victims had socio-economic and psychological impact post accidents. Majority of the victims were males (87.6) and (56 %) aged in between 21 – 50 years. More than half of them belonged to general caste and (51%) sikh religion (59%). 54 per cent had two wheelers followed by pedestrians and cycle riders. About one third victims did not possess driving license and knowledge of road signs. Almost all the respondents did not have insurance coverage with them. Overspeed (66.6%), rash driving (64.6%), negligence of driver (45.3%), alcohol consumption (26%) etc turned to be major contributory factors of road accidents. Further, the study found unemployment (65%), family disturbance (90%), loss of mobility (84%), raised anxiety (84%), trauma (72%) and depression (41%) were the major socio-economic and psychological effects faced by accident victims. Respiratory diseases, inadequate staff, long working hours, improper equipments and hurdles put by authorities and politicians were the problems faced by traffic police personnel while traffic management. To provide mechanisms for prompt first aid on the spot (71.6%), emotional and medical help (29.3%), stop hearing mobile phones (34%), to avoid alcohol and drugs (62%), ego and frustrations (35%), improvement in road infrastructure (57%), provision of street lights (25%) and sign boards (55%), were some of the suggestions given by the victim respondents at societal, individual and governmental level.

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