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ThesisItem Embargo Valuation of Wetland Ecosystem: A Case Study of Harike Wetland, Punjab(Punjab Agricultural University, 2023) Arshdeep Kaur; Guleria, AmitThe present study entitled “Valuation of Wetland Ecosystem: A Case Study of Harike Wetland, Punjab” was conducted to examine the status of wetlands in Punjab vis-à-vis India, identification and valuation of various use and non-use values of ecosystem services of Harike Wetland and to identify the causes of wetland degradation and suggests policy measures during the year 2022-23. A sample of 400 respondents, including local households (100), tourists (100), and non-users (200), was randomly chosen. To estimate the use value of the wetland for local households Contingent Valuation Method (CVM) and Tobit regression model was employed revealing that family expenditure, education, and gender significantly influenced the willingness to pay for wetland conservation. The study also estimated the existence value of the wetland using CVM and Tobit regression analysis of non-users' responses. The results showed that family income, education, age, religion, and caste were significant factors affecting the willingness to pay for the wetland's existence value. The recreational value of the wetland for tourists was captured using the Travel Cost Method (TCM) and a Poisson regression model. The findings indicated that as travel costs increased, the visitation rate decreased. Factors such as family income, education, marital status, religion, gender, caste, and family expenditure per month significantly influenced the recreational value. The estimated annual economic value of the wetland, including use (Rs. 26.78 crore), existence (Rs. 29.08 crore), and recreational (Rs. 10.04 crore) values, was calculated to be Rs. 65.90 crore. Furthermore, the study emphasized the need to address the degradation of the wetland caused by excessive weed growth and industrial effluents. Integrated weed control practices and the prohibition of human activities near the wetland are recommended. Employment opportunities and awareness programs are also suggested to promote wildlife preservation and maintain the ecosystem's balance, biodiversity, and protection of endangered species.ThesisItem Restricted Market Integration, Arrival and Price Behaviour of Lemon in Major Producing States in India(Punjab Agricultural University, 2023) Nayak, Bilavat Swami; Goyal, MiniThe present study analyzed the price behavior and integration of selected lemon markets in India. Major lemon producing states of India viz. Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh and Odisha were selected based on their share in total production of the country. Six major markets were selected from major producing states i.e. Tenali (Andhra Pradesh), Pune (Maharashtra), Surat (Gujrat), Attabira (Odisha), Udipi (Karnataka) and Lashkar (Madhya Pradesh). Data on area, production and productivity of lemon were taken from INDIASTAT. To achieve the objectives, various statistical tools like CAGR, Decomposition analysis, Coefficient of Variation, Seasonal Indices, Johansen Methodology, Granger Causality test, Vector Error Correction Model etc. were employed to analyze the data. The analysis indicated that area and production of lemon was consistently increasing significantly in major lemon producing states of India over the last two decades. The change both in area and productivity contributed towards the change in production of lemon. Trend analysis of prices revealed a significant positive trend in the selected markets of lemon. Significant seasonality with inverse relationship has been observed in arrivals and prices of lemon. All the selected markets were found to be integrated and exhibited long-run relationship with each other. Tenali market was found to be a key market as it was influencing the prices of other selected markets of the country. In order to fully integrate the market prices, study suggests for policy interventions in the form of strengthening of market intelligence services along with improvements in market infrastructure including storage, transportation and other physical facilities.ThesisItem Restricted Effectiveness of Minimum Support Price Policy in India: A state wise analysis(Punjab Agricultural University, 2023) Nandi, Sukhendu; Vatta, KamalThe present study has examined the awareness of MSP and its effectiveness for various crops across major states of India. The study is based on 77th round of NSS for 2018-19. The incidence of crop sales at MSP and the quantity of produce sold on MSP were used as the effectiveness of MSP for a crop. Simple correlation analysis was used to examine the relationship between awareness and effectiveness of MSP. OLS and logit regression models were used to identify the factors affecting the effectiveness of MSP. On average, the awareness of MSP is below 50 per cent for any crop. Sugarcane and paddy are two major crops with the highest level of awareness. Punjab, Haryana, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Telangana exhibited more paddy and wheat sales at MSP or above in India. Barring maize and sugarcane, the price gaps showed an apparent decline with an increase in the land size category. There is a significant and positive correlation between the awareness and effectiveness of MSP for all crops. The OLS results also indicate that awareness is a significant factor influencing the effectiveness of MSP for all the crops in our study. The large producers could sell more on MSP. The variables such as education and access to public extension services influence the effectiveness of MSP for paddy and wheat only and have almost no or significantly less influence on the MSP realization for other crops. There is a need to raise awareness of MSP, expand its benefits to others crops, and increase particular focus on smallholder farmers to raise the effectiveness of MSP and increase welfare of the farmers in India.ThesisItem Restricted Economic Evaluation of Resource Conservation Technologies and their Carbon Footprints on Crop Production in Punjab Agriculture(Punjab Agricultural University, 2022) Simarjot Kaur; Sidana, Baljinder KaurThe present study was conducted to evaluate the economics of resource conservation technologies and their carbon footprints on crop production in Punjab agriculture. The study comprised of both primary and secondary data. In order to accomplish the specific objectives a sample of 120 farmers (60 from paddy-wheat crop rotation and 60 from cotton-wheat crop rotation) from two districts of Punjab namely Mansa and Sri Muktsar Sahib were selected through multi-stage sampling technique. The secondary data regarding emission factors for various inputs used in the calculation of carbon footprint were compiled from various published sources. The RCT adopters were segregated into three scenarios i.e. PDSR+WCT, PDSR+CRM+WMT and PPTR+CRM+WMT for paddy-wheat crop sequence. Similarly, RCT adopters identified for cotton-wheat sequence were CCT+WMT and CIPM+WCT. On the one hand, use of paddy chopper or bailers or rackers for complete removal of residue increased the cost of paddy straw management by 17 times than non-adopters. On the other hand, incorporation of paddy stubble with super seeder/happy seeder used for wheat sowing reduces expenditure on land preparation to the tune of 26 per cent due to no preparatory tillage in subsequent wheat crop for farmers following paddy-wheat crop sequence. Overall, there was a saving of 6 to 8 per cent in variable cost by DSR adopters whereas it increased by 8 per cent for managing residue on PTR farms. As a result, net returns decreased on PPTR+CRM farms by 3 per cent and PDSR+CRM farms by 1.5 per cent. CIPM reduces expenditure by 13 per cent on agrochemicals in cotton giving 14 per cent more profitability than non-adopters. Paddy crop is the major carbon emitter, emitting 7 times more carbon than wheat and cotton crops. Carbon footprint from burning of paddy residue came out to be 7 t CO2eq/ha whereas this was 0.16 - 0.32 t CO2eq/ha for adopters of CRM. PPTR farms emitted 1.7 t CO2eq/ha of methane (CH4) emissions which come out to be 16 per cent of total GHG emissions, while these were absent on DSR farms. The study found that PDSR+CRM+WMT and CIPM+WCT came out to be the cost effective and environmental friendly RCTs for paddy-wheat and cotton-wheat crop rotation. Financial help should be provided to farmers for motivating them to adopt RCTs and timelyavailability of machinery for ex-situ management for reducing the carbon footprint.ThesisItem Restricted Encashing the potential of stevia (Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni): A case study of Punjab(Punjab Agricultural University, 2023) Minhas, Taranveer Singh; Kataria, PoonamThe present study was conducted to examine the extent of adoption of stevia (Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni), to identify the deterrents in the cultivation thereof and to evaluate its economic feasibility as a diversification option in Punjab. The formulations of the study were based on primary data related to crop management details collected from 30 stevia growers and a matching sample of 30 farmers following traditional paddy-wheat crop sequence for the crop year 2021-22. Based on the spread of stevia over the state, the respondents of study were from 16 blocks of six stevia niche’ districts; Gurdaspur, Hoshiarpur, Jalandhar, Ludhiana, Patiala and Pathankot. The study highlighted that the stevia area per grower (7.97 acres) was the highest in District Hoshiarpur. The stevia area as per cent of gross cropped area happened to be the highest (66%) in marginal and small farms, followed by semi-medium (44 %), medium (19 %), and large (7 %) farms. In the first year of stevia plantation, the seedling cost accounted for 39.7 per cent and the hired labour, another 41.9 per cent of the total variable cost. The net returns over the variable costs were estimated as Rs. 352661 per acre for the entire crop cycle. In comparison to the net returns accrued from the entire paddy-wheat rotation to the traditional farmers, the stevia growers stood to gain to the tune of Rs 9176 over the entire crop cycle of 5 years. The high initial cost, absence of suitable marketing mechanism and high labor requirement were found to demotivate the non-adopters from taking up stevia cultivation. Very high labor requirement leading to high labor charges cost and high price of planting material, non-remunerative price of stevia produce were identified as the major deterrents in the way of stevia area expansion, requiring immediate policy attention to encash the potential of stevia. The findings of the study endorse the promotion of stevia cultivation in resource-deficient regions, particularly the marginalized lands in SubMountainous Zone of Punjab, where the trade-off is not between paddy-wheat and stevia, rather it is between ‘nothing versus something’.ThesisItem Embargo Contract farming of floriculture in Punjab(Punjab Agricultural University, 2022) Mishra, Yashi; Jasdev SinghThe present study was undertaken to examine the status of floriculture, cost and return of flower seed cultivation under contract farming and problems faced by farmers and contracting agencies. To accomplish the objectives of the study, both primary and secondary data was collected. Primary data was collected from sample contracting firms and farmers through personal interview method. The results of the study revealed that area under floriculture and production of flowers in India and Punjab has increased significantly in past two and half decades. Area under contract system of flower cultivation (for seed production) accounted for about 15 percent of GCA on the sample farms. Results revealed that cultivation of flower crops for seed production is a highly labour-intensive and this component alone constituted 50 per cent of the total cost. Gross return received by respondent farmers from overall flower seed crops was Rs.81185 per acre and return over variable cost and return over total cost turns out to be 50.72 per cent (Rs.41178/acre) and 24.08 per cent (Rs.19551/acre), respectively. Though cost of cultivation of flower crops was significantly higher in comparison to alternative wheat crop but on account of higher gross return the flower crops yielded much higher return over variable cost (65.44%) than that obtained from wheat crop. High production risk, high cost of cultivation, high rejection rate of output, irregular payment and low contract prices were main problems faced by contract farmers. Major problems faced by contract firms include mixing of poor quality output by farmers, problematic behaviour of farmers and farmer‟s unwillingness to follow the prescribed practices. For large scale adoption of floriculture, strengthening of extension system, mechanization of cultural operations of floricultural crops and provision for crop insurance under contract were the measures suggested by study. In order to protect contract farmers against irregular payment and manipulation of terms by contract firms, written form of contract with provision for legal measures should be made compulsory.ThesisItem Restricted Women labour participation in major vegetables cultivation in Punjab(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2022) Roy, Pritam; J. M. SinghWomen's contributions to agriculture have been neglected and under valued. Very few scientific ventures have been made in our economy to examine the actual participation of female labour in vegetable crop production. The study was conducted with specific objectives to know the input-output pattern in major vegetables grown with an emphasis on women labour participation, to compare the remuneration received by both male and female labour and to bring out the problems encountered by them and recommendation of suitable policy measures. By keeping into account the most recent area under vegetables; potato, pea and cauliflower being major vegetable crops, were selected for the study. The study was carried out in selected blocks of Jalandhar, Amritsar and Hoshiarpur districts with a sample size of 30 vegetable growers and 20 female labours for each crop, thereby making a sample of 150 respondents. According to the study's findings, female labours participate in selective operations like; harvesting and grading during potato cultivation and constitute only 23.24 per cent out of total labour used, in pea cultivation female labours participate during picking and hoeing operation and constitute 31.64 per cent of the total labour used and during cauliflower cultivation, female labours participate in transplanting, earthing up and harvesting operations and constitute 46.22 per cent of total labour used. The study also find that daily wage difference prevails between male and female labour, even the contractual wage rate is also low for female labour compared to male labour. Most of the female respondents suffered because of the seasonality of agriculture labour (91.67%) followed by dissatisfaction with the wage received (88.33%) and not having any ownership right of resources, especially land (85%). According to the study's findings, it is recommended that awareness should be created through proper extension services to men who are cultivators and be made aware of the value of women's labour in agriculture and provide them with fair financial recompense. Also suitable policy measures should be made to give female labours land rights for their empowerment and to increase the enrollment and completion rates in education, across all levels.ThesisItem Restricted Magnitude and determinants of indebtedness among farmers in border areas of Punjab(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2022) Jaspreet Singh; Kingra, H.S.The present study analyzes the magnitude and determinants of indebtedness among farmers in border areas of Punjab in accordance with purpose and source of debt across various categories of farmers. A total sample of 80 farmers covering four blocks and eight villages of Pathankot and Tarn Taran districts of Punjab were taken to meet the stipulated objectives of the study. There are about 5 persons in the farm family. Irrigation with tube-wells is the predominant practice. Various land categories i.e. marginal, small, semi-medium, medium and large farms depicted average operational area of 1.75 acres, 3.34 acres, 7.68 acres, 14.05 acres and 29.40 acres, respectively. The income derived from farm activities was around 75 per cent of the total household income (Rs. 973618). Overall, 84 per cent of the farm households were indebted in border areas of Punjab and average debt per farm household was estimated at Rs. 6.33 lakh. Institutional sources are the foremost source of debt with around 90 per cent share in total household debt. Amongst the institutional sources, government banks were the major source with 48.99 per cent of the total debt. Out of the total debt, 67 per cent was used for productive purposes. As evident from the findings, farmers usually take loan at rate of interest of 5 to 7 per cent. In conclusion it is implied that one-third of the farm households took loan to meet social and consumption purposes. The share of non-institutional loan is the highest among smaller farm size categories. Hence, cooperative societies should be promoted to reduce the dependency of farmers from non-institutional sources of credit.ThesisItem Open Access Marketing and Processing of fruits in Punjab(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2022) Jalthariya, Kamal Kishor; Jasdev SinghThe present study was conducted to investigate the various marketing and processing related aspects of fruits in Punjab. Personal interview method was employed to collect the primary data from the sample respondents comprising farmers, pre-harvest contractors, wholesalers, retailers and the processing units. The study revealed that marketed surplus of kinnow and malta, the major fruits of sample farmers constituted 98.20 per cent and 96.06 per cent total production of the respective fruits. As compared to channels in which producers themselves sold their produce in the market, in this channel (pre-harvest contract system) the observed price spread was the highest and the producer’s share in the price paid by consumer for the average quality fruits was found to be the lowest. The producer’s share in consumer rupee was the highest when they sold their produce directly to the retailers and this channel was observed to be the highly efficient. The location of majority of fruit processing units is away from the main fruit producing areas and these are found to be concentrated in the industrial hub of the state. The processing capacity utilized by processing units found to be very low and inversely related to the size of unit. Both, local as well as distant markets were the major sources of procurement of fruits by the processing units and relatively low quantities of fruits were sourced directly from the farmers. Problems of insect disease, inadequate irrigation facility, lack of processing unit in nearby area, and lack of local markets were the major constraints faced by the farmers. Inadequate supply of variety of fruits, low quality of fruits, lack of demand of processed food and lack of utilization of waste were the main constraints faced by the processing units. In order to bring the desired diversification of state agriculture, the problems faced by fruit growers and processing units need to be addressed on the priority basis through employing suitable technological interventions and policy tools.
