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ThesisItem Open Access Economic viability and resource use efficiency of tenant farming in Punjab(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2019) Bansal, Surbhi; Grover, D.K.The present study has been designed to review the dynamics of tenant farming/reforms, to study the fiscal viability and input use productivity of major crops of the state for the tenant as well as the owner farmers. The study has been based on the primary data collected from 180 farmers (120 tenants and 60 owners), spread over all the major agro-climatic zones of Punjab pertaining to the crop year 2017-18. The study highlighted that the operational cost of major growing crops namely paddy, wheat, cotton and sugarcane cultivation per hectare was observed slightly lower for tenant farmers in comparison to owner farmers. Total cost of cultivation (C2) was also found relatively lower in case of tenant farmers as compared to owner farmers. The returns over variable cost were found to be comparatively higher for tenant farms in relation to owner farms. The returns over variable cost were estimated `92169, `69929, `84424 and `200081 from paddy, wheat, cotton and sugarcane on tenant farms as compared to `89673, `68700, `82916 and `187784 on the owner farms respectively. The regression analysis brought out relatively efficient input use productivity on tenant farms especially in terms of micro nutrients and other chemical fertilizers. Expensive farm machinery, ineffective government policies and inadequate timely financial assistance from banks were found as major constraints confronted by the tenant farmers in the state.ThesisItem Open Access Income and expenditure pattern of farmers in Amritsar district of Punjab(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2019) Simardeep Singh; Kingra, H.S.The present study was designed to examine the income and expenditure pattern of farmers in Amritsar district of Punjab during 2018-19. By using three stages random sampling technique, a total sample of 90 farmers covering, three blocks and six villages of Amritsar district of Punjab was taken for ultimate analysis. The overall family size of all categories of farmers was 5.20 persons per family. The study revealed that average operational area in case of marginal, small, semi-medium, medium and large farms was 1.91, 4.17, 8.52, 15.68 and 34.02 acres, respectively. Crop production and dairy farming were the main sources of income of the sampled farmers. The net income obtained from farm and non-farm sector was found to be ₹ 184318, ₹ 333588, ₹ 608021, ₹ 858989 and ₹ 1371378 for marginal, small, semi-medium, medium and large farmers, respectively. Income from non- farm source has not been a major contribution to the net income of farm households. The annual consumption expenditure was found to be ₹ 161890, ₹ 244265, ₹ 424938, ₹ 611822 and 808518 for marginal, small, semi-medium, medium and large farmers respectively. The total cost (fixed and variable) incurred on the farm was found to be was ₹ 106386, ₹ 199173, ₹ 398625, ₹ 730717 and ₹ 1720786 for marginal, small, semi-medium, medium and large farmers respectively. The savings of marginal, small, semi-medium, medium and large farmers was found to be ₹ 22428, ₹ 89322, ₹ 183083, ₹ 247166 and ₹ 562859 respectively. As the farm size increased the saving were also increased in same pattern. The study concluded that farmers need to initiate the farm allied activities and off farm projects to increase their income.ThesisItem Open Access Income and expenditure pattern of farmers in Amritsar district of Punjab(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2019) Simardeep Singh; Kingra, H.S.The present study was designed to examine the income and expenditure pattern of farmers in Amritsar district of Punjab during 2018-19. By using three stages random sampling technique, a total sample of 90 farmers covering, three blocks and six villages of Amritsar district of Punjab was taken for ultimate analysis. The overall family size of all categories of farmers was 5.20 persons per family. The study revealed that average operational area in case of marginal, small, semi-medium, medium and large farms was 1.91, 4.17, 8.52, 15.68 and 34.02 acres, respectively. Crop production and dairy farming were the main sources of income of the sampled farmers. The net income obtained from farm and non-farm sector was found to be ₹ 184318, ₹ 333588, ₹ 608021, ₹ 858989 and ₹ 1371378 for marginal, small, semi-medium, medium and large farmers, respectively. Income from non- farm source has not been a major contribution to the net income of farm households. The annual consumption expenditure was found to be ₹ 161890, ₹ 244265, ₹ 424938, ₹ 611822 and 808518 for marginal, small, semi-medium, medium and large farmers respectively. The total cost (fixed and variable) incurred on the farm was found to be was ₹ 106386, ₹ 199173, ₹ 398625, ₹ 730717 and ₹ 1720786 for marginal, small, semi-medium, medium and large farmers respectively. The savings of marginal, small, semi-medium, medium and large farmers was found to be ₹ 22428, ₹ 89322, ₹ 183083, ₹ 247166 and ₹ 562859 respectively. As the farm size increased the saving were also increased in same pattern. The study concluded that farmers need to initiate the farm allied activities and off farm projects to increase their income.ThesisItem Restricted Production and marketing of sesamum in Punjab(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2019) Avneet Kaur; Grover, D. K.The present study is undertaken to study the economic analysis of sesamum production vis-àvis its major competing crops. This analysis is based on secondary data (1964-65 to 2017-18) and primary data pertaining to the year 2017-18. The data have been collected from 60 farmers from major sesamum growing districts of Punjab. The study has brought out that there was major decline in area, production and yield of sesamum during the last five decades. Sesamum has been found a less input intensive crop in terms of irrigations, fertilizers and plant protection material etc. as compare to paddy and basmati cultivation. Total variable cost of cultivation in case of sesamum was much lower (` 5530 acre-1) in comparison to (` 17763 acre-1) for paddy and (` 17311) for basmati. The corresponding gross returns have been estimated as ` 17644 acre-1, ` 49226 acre-1 and ` 58034 acre-1. Though, sesamum cultivation yields relatively lower absolute returns, yet the benefit-cost ratios were found much higher in case of sesamum cultivation (3.19) as compared to 2.77 in paddy cultivation. About 58.42 per cent of produce was marketed in immediate after post-harvest period, of which a major chunk was marketed through the channel, “Producer-Wholesaler-Retailer-Consumer” while producer’s share in consumer rupee was maximum in channel, “Producer-Consumer”. To broad-base sesamum cultivation in the state the various biotic and abiotic constraints to be taken care of, were more incidences of disease, insect/pest, weeds, lack of quality seeds/high yielding variety of seeds, lack of price information and price variability etc.ThesisItem Restricted Comparative study on livelihood security of small and marginal farm households in two districts of Punjab(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2019) Kamaldeep Kaur; Sidhu, Simran KangToday, the mainstay of Punjab’s economy is gasping for breath and the farmers are in distress. The most effected are marginal and small farmers who find it increasingly hard to sustain on farming. A majority of these land holders suffer from unemployment and poverty, which results in failure to achieve necessary household living over time. The risk of livelihood failure determines their level of vulnerability to income, food, health and nutritional insecurity. Present study has been conducted with the objective of i) to determine association between socio-economic characteristics and livelihood security of selected farm households, ii) to assess livelihood security of farm household and iii) to identify the problems of small and marginal farmers and suggest plausible measures. The study was conducted in the rural areas of Fatehgarh Sahib and Ludhiana districts of Punjab. Through stratified random selection technique, total 88 small and marginal farm households selected from eight villages of four blocks in selected districts were interviewed. The analyses of data show that the number of nuclear families was almost double to joint families. Only 6.81% of the households had income more than Rs. five lac/a. Majority of the households had medium to low level of household livelihood security. Both the districts characterized by low level of educational and economic security. More than half of the households were in favor of joint family system for better livelihood security. The study suggests that livelihood security could be improved by providing skill based education in rural schools and off farm employment opportunities.ThesisItem Open Access Pattern and sources of growth in agriculture for agriculturally important states of India(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2019) Stanikzai, Ezatullah; Sanjay KumarIndia adopted significant policy reforms focused on the goal of food grain self-sufficiency. The state wise growth of Indian agriculture has been varied highly and the state level inequalities in agriculture and its infrastructure are the main reasons of this difference in the different states of the country. The present study was designed to study the level of agricultural development, impact of factors on agricultural growth as well as constraints in 14 agricultural dominating states and is based on secondary data collected from various published sources. For analysis of data, different statistical tools such as CAGR, ranking method, indexing method, development index and regression analysis were used. In case of ranking method, Punjab showed the highest level of agricultural development followed by Haryana and Andhra Pradesh, whereas Assam showed the lowest. Using indexing method, Andhra Pradesh ranked first followed by Punjab and Haryana, while Assam hold the last position. In case of development index method, Punjab showed the highest level of agricultural growth followed by Haryana and Andhra Pradesh, whereas Odisha showed the lowest growth followed by Assam. It was also concluded that fertilizers, pesticides, electricity, cropping intensity and net irrigated area had significant impact on GSDP from agricultural sector in certain states. The main constraint facing Indian agriculture was low productivity and less growth rate in productivity of major crops in certain states, besides the impact of different factors on GSDP from agricultural sector was non-significant in some states. To achieve higher growth in agriculture and to increase productivity of crops the adequate quantity of fertilizers, pesticides, high quality seeds, agricultural machinery and etc., at appropriate time and place and at affordable prices should be available to the farmers.ThesisItem Open Access Economic Analysis of Organic Wheat in Punjab(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2019) Tomar, Shakti Singh; Sanjay KumarThe present study is an attempt to analyze the economics of organic wheat in Punjab. By using random sampling technique, 70 organic wheat growers were selected for collecting primary data. Concentration of organic farmers was found in Ferozpur, Moga, Sangrur and Patiala districts. Amongst these farmers, primary data about inorganic wheat were collected from 54 farmers who also cultivate inorganic wheat along with organic wheat. The reference period of study was 2017-18. Overall socio-economic results depicted that, average education was 12.15, average family size was 6.27 and families were male dominating accounting for 41 per cent of total members. Average operational land holding came out to be 14.98 acres out of which 2.78 acres (18.6%) was allotted under organic cultivation and average investment pattern was about Rs 10 lakh per farm. Cropping pattern in Punjab was mainly dominated by wheat and paddy, with cropping intensity of 218 per cent. It was found that productivity in organic wheat was 40 per cent less i.e. 12.25 qtls/acre as compared to inorganic wheat i.e. 20.11 qtls/acre. Returns over variable cost for organic wheat were Rs 39543 per acre (40% higher) and for inorganic were Rs 28215 per acre. It was seen that cost in organic wheat cultivation was higher due to high manual labour. Factor which primarily encouraged farmers to adopt organic farming were high demand, environmental awareness, premium prices etc. Factors which resisted them were low productivity, problem of human labour, inadequacy of required amount of FYM. Weighted mean average for price of organic wheat was calculated to be Rs 3926 per quintal which included premium prices. Most of the organic farmers preferred to sell their produce directly to the consumers in which the producer`s share in consumer rupee was more than 95 per cent. Problems of lower productivity in initial period, high weed problem and no assured marketing were stated by farmers.ThesisItem Open Access Ecοnοmic аnаlysis οf crοp аnd livеstοck intеgrаtiοn οn smаll fаrms οf punjаb(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2019) Bikramjit Singh; Sharma, V.K.The present study was undertaken to analyze economic analysis of crop and livestock integration on small farms in Punjab during 2018-19. A total sample 120 farmers covering two districts, two blocks, and eight villages were selected randomly for analysis. The results showed that most of farmers followed paddy-wheat as major crop rotation. However, fodder was second major crop cultivated on about 10 percent of the total cropped area in both rabi and kharif seasons by marginal farmers. Whereas, basmati (7.63%) in kharif season and potato (6.90 %) in rabi season were grown on small farms. On overall basis, the total human labour used for crop production came out 1020 hours per farm. The share of family labour and hired human labour were estimated to be 34.01 and 65.98 per cent respectively. On other side, the total human labour generated from dairy farming came out 90 days per annum, the share of family labour and hired human labour was estimated 96.70 and 3.30 per cent respectively. The total variable costs from paddy, wheat, fodder, Basmati, and vegetables were Rs 69208 per farm on marginal farms and Rs 125936 per farm on small farms. Whereas the gross return from the same crops Rs 173002 per farm on marginal farms and Rs 315970 per farm on small farms. The return over variable costs from all the crops were Rs 163794 per farm on marginal farms and Rs 190034 per farm on small farms. The extent of cost incurred on dairy animals were Rs 83349 on marginal farms and Rs 101095on small farms. The results showed that net income from dairy were Rs 32310 from marginal farms, whereas it was Rs 58276 on small farms. The obvious reason of more net return on small farms was large herd size than marginal farms. The sustainability of marginal and small farms in agriculture may be big challenge in future, so an urgent need to frame new policies to generate income and employment in dairy and non-agriculture sector.ThesisItem Restricted Incidence of poverty amongst agricultural labour, marginal and small farmers in central Punjab(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2019) Gagandeep Kaur; Arjinder KaurThe present study was undertaken to examine the extent of poverty and identify the determinants causing it amongst agricultural labour, marginal and small farmers in central Punjab. For this study, data were collected from 120 households of two districts in central Punjab. The study revealed thatincidence of poverty was more in agricultural labour category followed by marginal farm category. None of the small farmer was found living below the poverty line. The proportion of deficit households was more in agricultural labour category due to their low incomes. In small farm category the proportion of deficit households was more as compared to marginal farm category on account of higher expenditure on non-food items and social ceremonies. The regression coefficient of number of earners was found to be positive and significant determinant of poverty amongst the sampled categories in central Punjab. Family size and expenditure on social ceremonies were found to be negatively significant determinants of poverty. So, there is a need to create more employment opportunities as well as awareness programs to control the family size. Farmers need to rationalize their household expenditure especially on non-food items and social ceremonies which can enhance the surpluses of farming families.