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ThesisItem Open Access SOCIAL AND FEEDING BEHAVIOUR IN FREE-RANGING AND CAPTIVE POPULATIONS OF LION-TAILED MACAQUE (Macaca silenus)(COLLEGE OF VETERINARY AND ANIMAL SCIENCES POOKODE, WAYANAD, KERALA VETERINARY AND ANIMAL SCIENCES UNIVERSITY, 2023-02-21) MONISHA V.; Dr. Sabin GeorgeLion-tailed macaques (Macaca silenus) habitat distribution was continuous population extends from a few kilo meters north of the Sharavati River in Karnataka to the Agasthyamalai hills at the southern tip of the Western Ghats. The Western Ghats are geologically split into two parts, separated by a 40-km-long gap near Palghat in the state of Kerala; this gap naturally divides the northern and southern populations of the lion-tailed macaque. Even within these two large ranges, the rain forest has become fragmented due to the development of commercial plantations and the construction of water reservoirs in the hills for irrigation and power generation. As a result, the lion-tailed macaque groups inhabiting these forest fragments have become small breeding populations. The social and feeding behaviour of Lion tailed macaques in free range were studied at Silent Valley National Park (11˚ 06’ N and 76˚ 42’E) and captive lion tailed macaques at Thiruvanathapuram Zoological Garden captivity during 2019-2021. The mapping of lion tailed macaques distribution, habitat identification, vegetation sampling in the Silent Valley national park using transect based quadrate sampling method by using binoculars, GPS and maps during the field visit. During the field work, all the behavioural activities were video recorded in the free range and at captivity. During the field survey six troop of lion tailed macaques, 114 individuals were sighted, with mean group size of 18.6 and adult male, female ratio was ranged from 1:2.5 to 1:8. The vegetation studies revealed 112 plant species were identified and out of that 36 plant species were commonly used. Lion tailed macaques, arboreal, fruigvorous animals and diet preferences were adaptable to the season. Macaques were preferred feeding on Kuranguplavu (Cullenia exarillata) fruits and flowers during summer (10.2 per cent), south west monsoon (21.4 per cent) and north east monsoon (25.6 per cent). While compared to lion tailed macaques housed in Thiruvanathapuram zoo, six macaques were in closed cages and five macaques were housed in open enclosure with dry moat and vegetation area. The diet preferences for macaques in captivity were in the order of egg, different varieties of banana, pineapple, water melon, groundnut and grapes. Comparing the behaviour traits of wild macaques in silent valley park and at Zoos are different by their places, seasons and troop size. The activity analysis among different age group of macaques in silent valley park exhibited normal social behaviours like feeding (46.5 per cent), grooming (26.2 per cent), foraging (5.4 per cent), resting (13.4 per cent) in adult macaques during summer season. The macaques housed in Thiruvananthapuram Zoo are aged, old male and female (more than 13 years old) except three zoo born macaques. The enrichment of feeding area, sleeping sites proposals were studied and implemented. The abnormal begging behaviour, showing teeth, fighting were not observed in the macaques in captivity, however, stealing food and dominance hierarchy were evident among open enclosure macaques. The welfare measures for macaques in captivity may be considered by enriching their diet chart, based on the macaque’s activity and maintenance requirement.ThesisItem Open Access NUTRIENT RECYCLING POTENTIAL OF FLY LARVAE FOR BIOWASTE MANAGEMENT(COLLEGE OF VETERINARY AND ANIMAL SCIENCES MANNUTHY, THRISSUR, 2021-10-18) DEEPAK MATHEW D K; A. KannanThe fly larva plays a pivotal role in nutrient recycling of biowastes. This study was to find the nutrient recycling efficiency of fly larvae in biowastes, and to assess the nutrient content of fly larva and economic viability of bioconversion. The flies that colonized biowaste were identified in the pilot study. The five different biowastes viz. cow dung (BW-I), pig manure (BW-II), poultry manure (BW-III), poultry slaughter waste (BW-IV) and food waste (BW-V) were subject for the study. The climatic parameters, fly and larval activity, physicochemical parameters and proximate principles of substrate and leachate were recorded in the three different seasons viz summer (S-I), monsoon (S-II) and post monsoon (S-III). The biomass yields from the biowastes were also recorded. The results showed that primary colonizers, Chrysomya sp. were significant in poultry slaughter waste while Black soldier fly (BSF) was significantly found in food waste. During the study period, the climatic variables, temperature (oC), relative humidity (per cent) and rainfall ranged from 28 to 30oC, 75 to 84 per cent and 15 to 359 mm respectively. Significant (p< 0.05) reduction in weight (kg) was observed in BW-IV with a final weight of 1.97 kg. Significantly high temperature ( oC ) of 40.28oC was observed in middle layer of BW-V in phase-I of S-I. Significantly low pH was recorded in BW-V (3.5), and significantly high pH was observed in BV-III (7.96). Carbon dioxide emission was significantly higher in BW-V (49.9 per cent), while ammonia and hydrogen sulphide were significantly higher in BW-IV which were 100 and 347.63 ppm respectively. The highest significant larval biomass yield of 33.42 g (BSF) was from BW-V during S-I which was significant with other substrates. The crude protein (CP) of Chrysomya larva, ranged between 49 to 51 per cent while for BSF larvae it was 36 to 38 per cent. Highest significant BOD of 36.73 g/l and COD of 52.57 g/l were recorded from BW-IV. The reduction in weight of biowaste on dry matter basis was highest for BW-V in S-I (59.8 per cent) while it was below one per cent for BW-I, II and III. The highest total biomass yield of 445.16 g BSF larvae was obtained from BW-V in S-I. The BW-IV gave an yield of only 11.6 g larva during the S-I. The economic analysis revealed that production cost of one unit of CP with BSF larva was Rs. 0.30 to 0.45 which was lower than that of soyabean (Rs 1.00). This study concluded that nutrient recycling using BSF larva in food waste (BW-V) was economically viable.ThesisItem Open Access CONSERVATION ECOLOGY BASED ON PARASITE-NUTRIENT-SEASONAL INTERACTIONS IN NILGIRI TAHR (Nilgiritragus hylocrius)(COLLEGE OF VETERINARY AND ANIMAL SCIENCES MANNUTHY, THRISSUR, 2017-12-30) BIJU S.; P. C. SaseendranThe study was conducted to evolve suitable strategies for the conservation of the endangered Nilgiri tahr (Nilgiritragus hylocrius Ogilby, 1838) by investigating the primary interaction of the species with its parasites, forages and the season. The three habitats of Eravikulam, Nelliampathi and Kochupamba were selected and the study was conducted in the three seasons of summer, monsoon and post-monsoon. The indicators selected were incidence of parasitism, the degree of parasitic infection, the nutrient composition of forage, health status of the herd, stress level of animals, habitat features, herd structure and the general behavior of the herd. The indices in this regard were examined and recorded across the seasons. The herd size recorded ranged from 12 in Kochupamba to 36 in Eravikulam with adult females comprising nearly half of the herd. The habitats were typically of grass lands with short grasses adjacent to rocky cliffs. The activity budget was recorded to assess the behavior of the animals and it revealed grazing (37.4%) and resting (23.3%) as the prominent activity in tahr with very low share of browsing (0.8%) in the species. The activity budget also observed minor shifts between seasons, habitats and in age-sex class. The predominant grass species in each habitat were identified and the nutrient composition of the grasses was analysed showing significant difference between seasons in dry matter, crude protein, crude fibre, ether extract, total ash and nitrogen free extract. The body condition score (BCS) of all the animals ranged from three to five indicating the herds to be healthy across all seasons. There were no reports of disease or mortality in the animals in the study period. A total parasitic incidence of 38.9 per cent was observed and the degree of infection was assessed to be mild as indicated by the eggs per gram (EPG) below 1000 in the observed data. Strongyles and coccidia were the major parasites with 34.3 per cent and 15.5 per cent incidence respectively and the other parasites recorded were Moniezia, Trichuris, Capillaria, and Strongyloides. There was significant difference in parasitic incidence between habitats and seasons, with higher share in monsoon (58.9%) followed by summer (40%) and post-monsoon (17.8%). Eggs per gram also observed significant seasonal difference with higher count in monsoon (360.64) followed by post-monsoon (232.81) and summer (114.29). The faecal cortisol metabolite level estimated by enzyme immunoassay was significantly different between habitats, with Eravikulam recording a higher mean value of 472.17 ng/g, and the difference was non-significant between seasons. Significantly higher faecal cortisol metabolite was observed in parasite infected animals compared to non-infected animals. The study identified the significant presence of parasites in tahr population, indicating the dynamism and balance in equilibrium of host-parasite relationship which is a major driver in the organization of the ecosystem. The energy flow dynamics across seasons and habitats significantly influence the interrelationship of the host and parasite.ThesisItem Open Access BEHAVIOURAL, PHYSIOLOGICAL AND BIOCHEMICAL STRESS RESPONSES OF CROSSBRED COWS TO VARYING THERMAL INDICES IN DIFFERENT MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS(COLLEGE OF VETERINARY AND ANIMAL SCIENCES MANNUTHY, THRISSUR, 2017-06-23) HARIKUMAR S.; Anil K. S.1. Study the behavioural, physiological and biochemical responses of crossbred cows to thermal stress. 2. Assessment of different management systems for alleviating thermal stress of crossbred dairy cowsThesisItem Open Access EFFECT OF FEEDING SYSTEM AND FLOOR TYPES ON GROWTH PERFORMANCE OF MALABARI KIDS(COLLEGE OF VETERINARY AND ANIMAL SCIENCES MANNUTHY, THRISSUR, 2017-12-30) SMITHA S.; JOSSEPH MATHEWThe study was performed to evaluate the socio economic profile of goat farmers, production system, the effect of different feeding system and floor types on growth performance of Malabari kids in central Kerala. The average age of farmers was 52.82±1.98. Majority of them had less than 25 cents of land holding. Wooden raised and slatted floor was common type of flooring material seen in goat houses. None of them reared goats on an all concentrate ration. The farm study was conducted at University goat and sheep farm, Mannuthy. Fifty four newborn kids were allotted to three floors viz. concrete wooden and PVC slatted floors with each of the three types of feeds - an all concentrate ration, TMR and concentrate with grass based ration. The temperature on PVC slatted floor was higher (P<0.05). The floor temperature of the PVC floor was higher (P<0.05) during morning and evening. The body weight at six months varied from 10.98±1.41 kg to 14.82±0.47. The type of feed had a significant (P<0.05) effect on body weight at six months ie., the ‘all concentrate ration’ fed animals gained more. The overall mean of body height ranged from 48.45±2.27 to 55.48±0.64cm. The mean of chest girth ranged from 48.80±0.04 to 54.35±0.01cm. Animals reared on all concentrate ration and those fed TMR diet had a significantly (P<0.05) higher chest girth. The body length was in the range of 44.83±1.69 cm to 47.08±0.43 cm. The post weaning mean daily weight gain was in the range from 49.48±7.85 to 71.98±12.1g with higher (P<0.05) weight gain (P<0.05) for animals fed ‘an all concentrate ration’ (65.61±1.38g). The mean dry matter consumption ranged from 352.81±14.97 to 292.71±12.49g. The overall feed efficiency ranged between 3.60±0.15 to 5.88±0.69. Animals fed on concentrate and TMR diet had better feed efficiency (P<0.05). Mean respiration and pulse rate did not show any difference while the mean rectal temperature was higher (P<0.05) for goats reared on PVC slatted floor (103.63±0.07). The mean haemoglobin ranged from 6.61±0.19 to 7.57±0.24g/dl. Overall average haemoglobin of TMR kids was significantly higher (P<0.05). The PCV ranged from 26.83±1.63 to 33.35±1.83 per cent. The TMR fed kids and concentrate with grass fed kids had higher (P<0.05) overall average PCV level. The mean WBC count did not show any significance between groups during the experiment. The mean total proteins varied from 5.50±0.10 to 6.31±0.29g/dl. The serum albumin ranged from 3.61±0.09 to 4.13±0.09 g/dl. The serum globulin ranged from 1.76±0.15 to 2.50±0.16g/dl. The all concentrate fed kids had the highest total protein, albumin and globulin in serum. The serum calcium, phosphorus and cortisol ranged from 11.03±0.37 to 12.37±0.29 mg/dl, 9.63±1.00 to 11.25±0.73 mg/dl and 14.45±2.07 to 19.42±1.71ng/ml respectively. The mean dressing percentage at six months of age varied from 40.51±2.31 to 46.021±1.45. The rumen pH ranged from 5.35±0.15 to 6.35±0.05. The cooking loss values varied from 23.18±2.02 to 29.89±1.60 per cent. The incidence of digestive disorders, foot and skin lesions were more in concrete floor reared kids. The recorded respiratory disorders were in wooden floor was 42.53 per cent and PVC type of floor was 41.38 per cent. Eye lesions (75.00 per cent), ectoparasitic infestations (46.67 per cent) and urinary calculi (66.67 per cent) were noticed in wooden floor. The highest net income and benefit cost ratio was observed in animals reared on PVC floor and fed concentrate ration. While in concrete and wooden floor, the benefit cost ratio was better in animals reared on TMR.ThesisItem Open Access MINERAL PROFILE OF LIVESTOCK FARM WASTE AND ITS BIO ACCUMULATION EFFECTS IN CROSS BRED CATTLE(College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Mannuthy, Thrissur, 2018-03-03) JUSTIN DAVIS; Anil. K.SThe present study was conducted for a period of one year and divided to summer, monsoon and post monsoon seasons. The objective of the research was to estimate the minerals in soil, slurry, feed, fodder, dung and vermicompost and also assessment of bioaccumulation of minerals in crossbred cattle. The fodder plots were selected and placed under three treatments. The first treatment plots irrigated by pig slurry, second by cattle slurry and third by irrigation water alone. The soil, slurry and irrigation water were collected at the three different seasons for mineral estimation. The fodder yield from plots were measured. Three treatment groups of six male calves each were randomly selected and maintained under similar management and concentrate feeding for one year. The treatment groups of calves received fodder from corresponding fodder plots. The feed, fodder, blood, dung were collected for mineral estimation. Vermicompost produced from dung and fodder waste from the experimental animals was collected. The carcass traits were studied during their slaughter at Meat Technology Unit, Mannuthy and meat, liver, kidney, skin and bone samples were collected for mineral estimation. All the samples were processed and digested by microwave digestion for mineral analysis. Nitrogen element was estimated by Macro Kjeldhal method. The minerals P, K, Na, Ca, Mg, Mn, Fe, Cu, Zn, Cd, Cr and Pb were estimated using Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometer. The concentration of N and Mg was highest for first treatment in soil, slurry, fodder, dung, blood, liver, kidney and bone. The concentration of P, K, Ca, Cu was highest for second treatment group in soil, slurry, fodder, dung, bone samples. The concentration of Mn and Zn was highest for third treatment group in fodder, dung, vermicompost, meat, kidney and bone samples. The final body weight of experimental animals was highest for T1 and daily weight gain was highest for T3 animals. The total fodder yield was highest for plots irrigated with pig slurry. The bio-accumulation of heavy metals could not be detected in any animal tissue under the present study. Further studies may be required in crossbred cattle with more years of feeding trials to find out bio-accumulation of heavy metals.ThesisItem Open Access EVALUATION OF DIFFERENT BEDDING SYSTEMS ON COMFORT AND PERFORMANCE OF CROSSBRED DAIRY COWS(Kerala Veterinary and Animal Science University, Pookode, 2021-09-06) GEETHA. N; Balusami. CThe present study was undertaken to evaluate the different bedding systems on comfort and performance of crossbred dairy cows. Twenty four crossbred cows with six animals in each group at cattle farm was selected for the study and carried out for one lactation period spread over three different seasons such as summer months (Feb-May), monsoon months (June-Sep) and post monsoon months (Oct Jan). The control group (T1) was maintained in concrete floor without any bedding materials. In (T2) rubber mats of 1.2 m × 1.8 m × 0.025m area were provided on concrete floor. In (T3) coir pith and (T4) Dried solid manure (DSM) on concrete floor was provided at the rate of 7.5 cm thickness as bedding. Based on the results of the study cows housed on coir pith and DSM had prolonged lying times with higher cow comfort index compared to other bedding materials. Coir pith and DSM bedded cows improved cow hygiene, BCS and body weight gain with profound increase in milk production and composition. Coir pith and DSM bedding provided cooler surface which led to efficient heat dissipation from cow’s body. Milk cortisol level was lower in cows on coir pith and DSM groups due to adequate lying times which reduced stress. Frequent replace of bedding lowered APC, CC and TYMC with normal SCC and physiological parameters. Coir pith and DSM bedding reduced the risk of lameness and mastitis and increased the ability of the animals to express their natural behaviour. The nutrient value of coir pith and DSM after the use as bedding materials were enhanced, which could be used as an excellent organic manure for organic cultivation. Use of coir pith as barn bedding material is an important management practice for improving milk production, hygiene and health of cows. This also reduced stress level, incidence of disease and improves the comfort and overall welfare of dairy cows. Thus, coir pith and dried solid manure as bedding materials could be recommended to the dairy farmers compared to rubber mats and concrete floor bedding for improving cow comfort and improved milk production.ThesisItem Open Access CONSERVATION ECOLOGY BASED ON PARASITE-NUTRIENT-SEASONAL INTERACTIONS IN NILGIRI TAHR (Nilgiritragus hylocrius)(COLLEGE OF VETERINARY AND ANIMAL SCIENCES-MANNUTHY,THRISSUR, 2017) BIJU S.; Dr. P. C. SaseendranABSTRACT The study was conducted to evolve suitable strategies for the conservation of the endangered Nilgiri tahr (Nilgiritragus hylocrius Ogilby, 1838) by investigating the primary interaction of the species with its parasites, forages and the season. The three habitats of Eravikulam, Nelliampathi and Kochupamba were selected and the study was conducted in the three seasons of summer, monsoon and post-monsoon. The indicators selected were incidence of parasitism, the degree of parasitic infection, the nutrient composition of forage, health status of the herd, stress level of animals, habitat features, herd structure and the general behavior of the herd. The indices in this regard were examined and recorded across the seasons. The herd size recorded ranged from 12 in Kochupamba to 36 in Eravikulam with adult females comprising nearly half of the herd. The habitats were typically of grass lands with short grasses adjacent to rocky cliffs. The activity budget was recorded to assess the behavior of the animals and it revealed grazing (37.4%) and resting (23.3%) as the prominent activity in tahr with very low share of browsing (0.8%) in the species. The activity budget also observed minor shifts between seasons, habitats and in age-sex class. The predominant grass species in each habitat were identified and the nutrient composition of the grasses was analysed showing significant difference between seasons in dry matter, crude protein, crude fibre, ether extract, total ash and nitrogen free extract. The body condition score (BCS) of all the animals ranged from three to five indicating the herds to be healthy across all seasons. There were no reports of disease or mortality in the animals in the study period. A total parasitic incidence of 38.9 per cent was observed and the degree of infection was assessed to be mild as indicated by the eggs per gram (EPG) below 1000 in the observed data. Strongyles and coccidia were the major parasites with 34.3 per cent and 15.5 per cent incidence respectively and the other parasites recorded were Moniezia, Trichuris, Capillaria, and Strongyloides. There was significant difference in parasitic incidence between habitats and seasons, with higher share in monsoon (58.9%) followed by summer (40%) and post-monsoon (17.8%). Eggs per gram also observed significant seasonal difference with higher count in monsoon (360.64) followed by post-monsoon (232.81) and summer (114.29). The faecal cortisol metabolite level estimated by enzyme immunoassay was significantly different between habitats, with Eravikulam recording a higher mean value of 472.17 ng/g, and the difference was non-significant between seasons. Significantly higher faecal cortisol metabolite was observed in parasite infected animals compared to non-infected animals. The study identified the significant presence of parasites in tahr population, indicating the dynamism and balance in equilibrium of host-parasite relationship which is a major driver in the organization of the ecosystem. The energy flow dynamics across seasons and habitats significantly influence the interrelationship of the host and parasite.ThesisItem Open Access ECONOMICS OF DAIRY FARMING SYSTEMS IN KERALA(Kerala Veterinary and animal science university, Pookode, 2016-06-20) Sabin George; Saseendran, P CThe present study was conducted to study the management practices, trends and issues of various dairy production systems in Kerala, to study the variation in cost and profitability of milk production under different dairy production systems, to assess the influence of various assistance schemes in the economy of milk production and to evaluate the present milk pricing policy of Kerala and suggest modifications. The study was carried out selecting 350 farm households belonging to three groups based on number of milch animals. The study covered five agro climatic regions, five districts and 10 blocks to represent the state. The stratified random sampling method was used for selection of study area and samples. In small, medium and large farms, the herd size was 3.13 0.08, 9.52 0.3 and 36.38 3.65 respectively. The investigation on investment on capital assets showed that, the major share of capital expenditure was on milch animals followed by buildings. The labour use pattern in the small (99.4 per cent) and medium (70.9 per cent) farms were dependent solely on family labour. While in large farms, there was more (52.0 per cent) dependence on paid labour. The adoption index of recommended management practices was highest (90.04 per cent) in large farms followed by medium (89.40 per cent) and small farms (84.36 per cent). The wet average (l/day) was 8.98, 8.00 and 10.00 in small, medium and large farms respectively. The dry average (l/day) was 8.13, 6.65 and 7.86 in small, medium and large farms. The average daily price/litre realized from society was Rs.29.43, 29.79 and 29.64 in small, medium and large farms respectively. The major share of milk produced in small, medium and large farms were sold to society. A significant association was observed between adoption class and assistance class. In all farm types, majority of the farms showed medium level dairy farm performance. High price of concentrate feed was the major constraint in feeding. In all types of farms, infertility was the major breeding constraint. On milch animal basis, the average cost/litre of milk (cost B) was 32.51, 34.29, 29.08 and 32.29 in small, medium, large and overall farms respectively The average cost per litre of milk after deduction of imputed family labour cost (cost A) was 22.02,26.33, 27.08 and 24.34 (Rs/litre) in small, medium, large and overall farms respectively. On milch animal basis, the net return per day per milch animal was Rs.23.34, 10.39, 27.74 and 20.58 respectively in small, medium, large and overall farms respectively. The net return after deduction of imputed family labour cost was Rs.92.59, 52.42, 43.12 and 70.51 in small, medium, large and overall farms respectively. The estimated milk production function for different farms revealed that overall farms showed positive and highly significant effect of concentrate and adoption index and significant effect of total roughage (P < 0.05) with R2 value as 67.0 per cent. The marginal Value Products (MVP) of inputs in milk production for different farms showed that, in small farms the MVPs of two inputs viz. roughages and labour were significantly less than unity, signifying over utilization of these inputs. The MVP value of concentrate was significantly higher than unity indicating their under utilization in milk production process. The mean technical efficiency in small, medium and large farms was 99.80, 83.22 and 99.96 per cent respectively. A critical analysis of present milk pricing policy was done suggesting modifications and derived a new formula for pricing of milk considering significant factors.
