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Open Access
MEDROXYPROGESTERONE ACETATE AS AN AID TO BIRTH CONTROL PROGRAMME IN STRAY DOGS
(COLLEGE OF VETERINARY AND ANIMAL SCIENCES-MANNUTHY,THRISSUR, 2005) D, K. DEEPAK MATHEW; Joseph Mathew
The utility of Medroxyprogesterone acetate as an aid in the birth control programme of stray dogs was studied. Eighteen early proestrus bitches were randomly allotted to three equal groups (Group A Group B and Group C). Group A animals were administered with a single subcutaneous injection of 50 mg medroxyprogesterone acetate. Group B animals were administered medroxyprogesterone acetate orally at the rate of 10 mg per day for four days followed by 5 mg per day for another 12 days starting from the end of anoestrus. Six bitches of Group C acted as control animals. All animals in Group A and Group B responded to the treatment though one animal in Group A had returned to cycle in about 50 days. Reproductive cycle was controlled in all six animals of group A at a mean of 3.17 days and a mean of of 2.67 days in group B. Group A animals had a mean duration of control of 83.3 days while in group B it was 90 days. Vulval edema, vulval discharge, tail deviation reflex and interest in male decreased following treatment in Groups A and B while it seemed to be not changed or high in Group C animals. Detailed vaginal cytology was studied using Wright- Giemsa's stain. Cellular changes was characterized by a change from predominance of parabasal cells following treatment in Groups A and B while changes characteristic of oestrus cycle occurred in the control animals. There was significant difference in the mean percentage of parabasal cells between Groups A and B after treatment and during different stages of the oestrus cycle of the Group A up to end of dioestrus. Serum progesterone was estimated in all animals at fortnightly intervals. Animals in group A, B and C showed mean serum progesterone concentrations of 0.53 ng/ml, 0.57 ng/ml and 0.45 ng/ml during the beginning of proestrus. The mean progesterone in serum following treatment elevated in Group A to 27.83 ng/ml, while it maintained a low level of 0.55 ng/ml in group B and had a value of 4.43 ng/ml in group C which indicated oestrus phase. The progesterone level reached maximum concentration of 31.17 ng/ml on day 42 in group A and 49.00 ng/ml during dioestrus in group C. The values remained low in group B. Towards the end of experiment all animals had basal concentration of progesterone. It is concluded that reproductive control can be achieved effectively in bitches treated with medroxyprogesterone acetate by both oral and parenteral routes. Oral administration demand less technicalities and hence is more suitable for use in the field.
Open Access
MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND UTILISATION PATTERN OF CAPTIVE MALE ELEPHANTS {Elephas maximus) KERALA
(COLLEGE OF VETERINARY AND ANIMAL SCIENCES-MANNUTHY,THRISSUR, 2004) CIJO K. JOSEPH; K.S. Anil
The utilization pattern, management and nutrition of the elephants of Kerala under different ownership conditions were studied between June-2003 and July-2004 using survey method. The credibility of the information so collected was checked using triangulation method where, the information about an animal was collected from the owner, mahout, and also by physical verification of the claims in all possible cases. It was seen that the elephants of private owners with one elephant (25.2years) were significantly younger than the elephants of private owners with more than one elephant and elephants of temple trusts with one elephant (32.7 and 35.4 years respectively). The comparison of the height of the elephants revealed that the average height of elephants of forest department (245cm) was significantly lesser than the average height of elephants of private owners with more than one elephant and elephants of temple trusts with one elephant (278.7cm and 283.9cm respectively). The group wise variations in the frequencies of bath given to the elephants were insignificant but the duration of bath in elephants of forest department was significantly lesser than the average duration of bath in all other groups. It was also seen that most of the elephants in Kerala did not have proper housing facilities, and that majority of them were tied under tree on sandy floor. Studies on the utilization pattern of the elephants revealed that the elephants irrespective of their type of ownership were idle for most of the time in the year and that the elephants idled for the maximum number of days in a year (322.3 days). Further, the elephants of group-2 attended the maximum number of festivals in a year (82.9 ±6.92 days). Proximate analysis of the feed fed to the elephants revealed that the nutritional status of elephants of temples with one elephant was the highest. The study also revealed that all the elephants of group-4 were given restorative therapy and the elephants of group-5 were not given restorative therapy.
Open Access
EFFECT OF HOUSING SYSTEMS ON THE REPRODUCTIVE PERFORMANCE OF SOWS AND GILTS
(COLLEGE OF VETERINARY AND ANIMAL SCIENCES-MANNUTHY,THRISSUR, 1998) V. RAMESH; P.C. Saseendran
An experiment was conducted to findout the effect of housing systems on the reproductive performance of sows and gilts. Three types of housing systems namely, conventional house with wallowing tank (control TJ , conventional house with sprinklers (Tj) and range system (Tj) were put to test. Eighteen sows and eighteen gilts were reared under each system. A significantly lower (P<0.01) temperature was observed in sprinkler system (33.0°C) when compared to conventional (35.0°C) and range (34.35°C). There was nc significant difference in relative humidity between the groups. Significant difference (P<0.01) between treatment groups Ti with Tj and T3 in age at puberty and mating in gilt which were 305.47 ± 9.51, 270.36 ± 8.75 and 276.22 ± 5.- ;. respectively. The gilts under the treatment group T^ and T, had reached piiberty and were mated earlier than Ti group. The weight of gilts at the time of breeding was significantly (P<0.05) lower in treatment group T3 (75.39 ± 3.19) when compared to Tj (97.63 ± 3.09) and T^ (93.11 ± 3.73). But T3 group gilts had compensatory weight gain during pregnancy and difference between treatment groups in weight of gilts at one week after farrowing and at weaning were non significant. The weight of sows at the time of breeding, one week after farrowing and at weaning were significantly lower (P<0.05) in treatment group Tj when compared to T3 and . S .gnificantl' higher (P<0.01) percentage of oestrus occurrence, breeding success and intensity of oestrus were observed in T, and T3 group than group. The gestation length and post weaning oestrus period were found to be non-significantly different between the groups. The litter size at birth and weaning were 9.06 ± 0.26 and 6.87 ± 0.22 respectively in gilts and 9.38 ± 0.33 and 6.92 ± 0.05 respectively in sows reared under range system (T3) which were highly significant (P<0.01) than the litter size at birth and weaning obtained for gilts (5.85 ± 0.40 and 4.00 ± 0.69 respectively) and sows (7.09 ± 0.68 and 4.63 ± 0.70 respectively) reared under conventional system (TJ . Between T^ and T3 there was no significant difference. The litter weight at birth and weaning in T3 groups of 13.89 ± 0.43 kg and 62.72 ± 1.99 kg respectively in gilts and 14.35 ± 0.52 kg and 63.84 ± 4.04 kg respectively in sows were found to be highly significant than T^ group and non significantly higher than T, group. The cost of installing sprinkler in conventional pen and providing range in place of conventional pen were estimated to be Rs.29/m^ and Rs.l25/m= respectively. In the present study the reproductive performance of pigs maintained under sprinkler and range system was found to be better than the pigs maintained under conventional system. But the range system may not be practical and economically feasible always when compared to sprinkler system
Open Access
EFFECT OF MODIFIED ENVIRONMENT DURING SUMMER ON THE PERFORMANCE OF GROWING PIGS
(COLLEGE OF VETERINARY AND ANIMAL SCIENCES-MANNUTHY,THRISSUR, 1998) T. SUBRAMANIAN; K.S. Sebastian
An investigation was carried out to study the environment variables and the effect of modified housing conditions on the physiological norms and growth performance during the dry season on the large white Yorkshire grower pigs. The modified housing include, - without wallow and sprinkler, Tj - with wallow only, T3 - with sprinkler only and T4 - with wallow and sprinkler as the four treatment groups. The dry season (summer) characterised by higher ambient temperature (maximum temperature - 31.5° to 37°C, minimum temperature 22.8 to 26.1°C, mean temperature - 27.4°C to 31.3°C), comparatively lower relative humidity (mean RH 63.15 to 75.68%) and wind speed (2.75 to 7.8 km/h) . The higher range of temperature was sufficient to cause stress on the performance of the grower pigs as per the literatures. The treatment (TJ without wallow and sprinkler varies significantly (P<0.05) in the body temperature, respiration rate, cardiac rate both in the forenoon and afternoon from the Tj, T3 and T4 gramps, i.e., T^ has shown more of physiological stress reaction than other treatment groups. T, was found to be more comfortable than T^. and T3 were having no significant difference except in afternoon body temperature and respiration rate. There were no statistically significant (P<0.05) difference between treatment groups in the fortnightly body weight gain from the first fortnight to upto twelfth fortnight. The twelfth fortnight body weight of the treatments T^, T2, T3 and T4 were 70.833 ± 2.114, 69.333 ± 5.816, 73.333 ± 5.681 and 71.667 ± 5.975. There were also no significant difference in the body length, chest girth and body height among the treatment groups in the fortnightly observations. Though T^ had shown significant (P<0.05) rise of physiological norms that had not reached upto the level of growth retardation. The overall fortnightly rate of gain (kg) and average daily gain (g) of the treatment groups of T^, Tj, Tj and T^ were 5.08 ± 0.60, 4.97 ± 0.54, 5.28 ± 0.56 and 5.17 ± 0.60 and 339 ± 39.9, 330.9 ± 36.1, 351.7 ± 37.6 and 343.9 ± 36.0. Under restricted feeding regime, T3 was having relatively better feed conversion efficiency and lower cost per kg of live weight production than T^, T^ and Tj. The conversion efficiency of T^, T^, T3 and T^ were 4.05, 4.15, 3.91 and 3.99 and cost per kg of live weight production 36.16, 37.03, 35.05 and 35.81. Based on the observations and the results suitable method of environment modification during the dry season for grower pigs can be recommended.
Open Access
CERTAIN SOCIAL ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS ON THE REPRODUCTIVE PERFORMANCE OF PIGS
(College of Veterinary and animal Science,Mannuthy, 1996) S. RAMAKRISHNAN; K.S. Sebastian
An experiment was conducted to study the effect of social environment on the reproductive performance of pigs and the feasibility and economics of rearing pigs of either sex together. Sixteen weaned large white Yorkshire gilts, twelve weaned sows and two boars were randomly assigned to five groups as Ti, Tj, T3, T4 and T5 each consisting of six. Pigs in and T3 groups were bred at the body weight of 70-80 kg with designated boars at the time-of breeding. The pigs in T5 group were bred in the first oestrus after weaning. In Tj and T4 group female pigs were reared with boar. Post weaning oestrus, duration of oestrus, conception rate and gestation length did not vary significantly between groups. Onset and intensity of oestrus were significantly different (P<0.05) between groups. All gilts and sows in each group were allowed to farrow in the same pen and their litter performance was studied. The litter size and weight at birth did not vary significantly {P>0.05) between the groups. Litter size and weight at weaning did not vary significantly {P>0.05) between groups. The behaviour of parents and other penmates towards the litter did not vary significantly between groups. The behaviour of penmates to the litter was cordial. Overall results suggest that in farming conditions group housing system can be practiced. It is advisable to keep animals in advanced stage of pregnancy in farrowing pens till weaning of piglings.
Open Access
PRODUCTIVITY AND FEASIBILITY OF FIG PRODUCTION SYSTEMS IN RURAL SECTOR
(COLLEGE OF VETERINARY AND ANIMAL SCIENCES-MANNUTHY,THRISSUR, 2001) S. HARIKUMAR; Joseph Mathew
The productivity and feasibility of pig production systems were studied in the rural sector of Kerala, The study on feasibility of pig production and problems and prospects associated with pig farming was conducted in Kaiparambu and Kuzhoor Panchayaths in Thrissur district of Kerala. The performance of Large White Yorkshire pigs in organized farms and field units was compared. Majority of the pig farmers were having higher educational and economic status and were equipped with potential and facilities for economic pig production. The management practices were cost effective and suited well for pig production in rural sector. Problems and constraints faced by the pig farmers were minimum in two Panchayaths. It was observed that the feasibility of the pig production was higher in two Panchayaths studied. The resource utilization efficiency of the existing pig production was only 40.95per cent and I9.53per cent, respectively in Kaiparambu and Kuzhoor Panchayaths. In the comparative study between pigs in the organized farm and field units, the pigs reared in small field unit on 40per cent chicken offal and 60per cent restaurant waste recorded a significantly higher (P<0.01) slaughter weight of 73.66 + 3.15kg than that of 60.00 ± 2.79kg in pigs reared on hostel food waste in the farm. In the case of body measurements, pigs in small field unit group recorded maximum values. The feed efficiency (3.221 ±0.15) was better in pigs fed on 40pcr cent chicken offal and 60pcr cent restaurant waste. The mean daily dry matter intake was a maximum of 1.417 ± 0.19g in pigs reared on concentrate ration. The average daily weight gain was highest in pigs fed on 40per cent chicken offal and 60per cent restaurant waste (367 .13 ± 16.64g) and lowest in hostel food waste fed pigs (287.96 ± 15.23g). Pigs fed on 40per cent chicken offal and 60per cent restaurant waste were recorded a maximum value for dressing percentage (75.52 ± 0.41). Pigs fed on concentrate ration attained a maximum of 19.36 + 2.2cm^ for loin eye area and a minimum of 28.0 + 0.22mm for back fat thickness. Meat bone ratio was the lowest in pigs fed on hostel food waste (3.53 ± 0.19). Hot carcass weight (55.66 ± 2.49kg) and carcass length (65.00 ± 0.83cm) was more in pigs fed on 40per cent chicken offal and 60per cent restaurant waste in T4 group. In proximate analysis chicken offal was recorded a crude protein content of 35.63 + 2.77per cent and ether extract of 30.9 ± 2.31per cent. Concentrate, restaurant waste and hostel waste were recorded a higher NFE content. Cost of production per kilogram live weight of pigs was the highest in concentrate t^d group (Rs 54.66) and the lowest in small field unit (Rs 12.64).
Open Access
FACTORS INFLUENCING CALF GROWTH AND MORTALITY IN FIELD AND ORGANISED FARMS
(COLLEGE OF VETERINARY AND ANIMAL SCIENCES Mannuthy - Thrissur, 1994) SHAJI ANTONY; Thomas, C.K.; SHAJI ANTONY
A study was undertaken to evaluate- the system of calf raising in the field vis-a-vis that in organised farms, which included contemporary calves born in field and organised farms. Mavelikara was chosen as the study area from where the experimental field calves were selected. University Livestock Farm, Kerala Agricultural University and Dhoni Farm, KLD Board, Palghat were chosen to represent organised farms in the experiment. All the calves born in the experimental area or farms during a period of two months were included in the experiment. Calves were studied upto a period of six months of age. It was observed that climatic conditions in general were similar at the three locations except that at ULF, Mannuthy relative humidity and hours of bri.ght sunshine tended to be less than the other two locations. The male calves in the farms weighed heavier at birth and gained faster to weigh significantly more at the 12th fortnight compared to those in the field. There was no significant difference in birth weight of farm and field born female calves. However, those in the farms grew faster to weigh significantly heavier at 12th fortnight. When male and female calves in the farms and field were put together and tested at 1st, 6th and 12th fortnights, the calves in the farms weighed significantly heavier than those in the field at all stages. The daily weight gain during different fortnights was higher in the farm grown calves compared to their counterparts in the field. There was no significant difference in height of male calves in the farm » and field in the 1st fortnight but was significantly higher in the farm grown calves in the 6th and 12th fortnights. There was no significant difference in the height of the female calves in the farms and field in all the three fortnights tested. Information with respect to girth showed similar trend as in the case of weight and height. In the first fortnight, the male calves in the farms measured significantly shorter in length than those in the field but by 6th and 12th fortnights, they measured significantly longer than male calves in the field. There was no significant difference in length of female calves in the field and farms during the time intervals tested. In the field, calves received generally an adequate amount of colostrum through suckling. Those in the farm were fed 2-2.5 kg colostrum daily from the pail. The interval between birth and first nursing varied from 15 min to 2 h in the field. In the farms, calves born during day time received colostrum within half an hour, while those born in night received colostrum the next morning. Highest daily gain and lowest mortality was seen in calves fed colostrum within 15 minutes. It was observed that the quantity of milk available to female calves in the field was comparable to that in the farms. Male calves in the field received much lesser quantity. Female calves received more quantity of concentrates compared to males except in the early fortnights. Maximum daily gain of calves was observed in sheds with concrete flooring and tiled roofs. Monthly deworming was practised upto 12 months of age in the two farms studied. In the field all calves were dewormed during the 1st month only. Thereafter, female calves were given more frequent deworming treatment. Vaccination against Foot and Mouth disease was carried out in the farms b\]t not in the field. Good hygiene and daily grooming increased the daily gain of calves. Better growth was seen when the animals were looked after by men than women. Average dairy awareness was Observed in 90 per cent of the farmers, naily gain of calves increased with increased dairy awareness. People with high school level education maintained their calves better than those with higher or lower levels of education. Calves grown by agricultural labourers seemed to have lower weight gain. Calves reared in larger units of land had a greater daily weight gain. The mortality rate among calves was 14 per cent in the field compared to 8.5 per cent in the farms. Mortality rate of 66.6 per cent was seen when no colostrum was fed. There was no mortality among calves fed colostrum within 15 minutes. Male calves had higher mortality rate than female calves. Higher mortality rate was observed in calves born to first calvers. in field mortality was higher in 1st and 5th month of age. Mortality rate was lower when calves were looked after by men compared to women. The lowest calf mortality rate was observed among calves owned by those who had high school level education. Mortality rate among calves seemed to decrease with increasing dairy awareness of owners. Mortality rate of calves was highest in shed i and premises with poor hygiene (50%) followed by medium hygiene (11.11%) and good hygiene (10.5%). Similarly daily grooming seemed to reduces mortality rate (11.9%) compared to weekly grooming (25%). At the end of 6 months, 92.85 per cent of the female calves were retained by the farmers compared to only 36.36 per cent male calves, clearly pointing towards the greater future economic utility of the former.
Open Access
MANAGEMENTAL EFFECTS OF SYNCHRONIZATION OF OESTRUS IN GOATS
(COLLEGE OF VETERINARY AND ANIMAL SCIENCES Mannuthy - Thrissur, 1993) SHIVKUMAR, S.; Thomas, C.K.; SHIVKUMAR, S.
An experiment was conducted to study the managemental effects of synchronization of oestrus in goats using parentral administration of PGF2alpha, on a flock of Malabari/ Malabari x Saanen and Malabari x Alpine goats maintained at the Agricultural University Goat Farm, Mannuthy. Forty cyclic goats were selected in pairs on the basis of similarity in genetic group, body weight and age. The does from each pair were allotted to two groups at random. Out of these one group at random formed the treatment group and the other control. The goats in the treatment group were given two injections of 10 mg (l/M) each of PGF2alpha separated by 11 days, in two batches of 10 goats each. The animals were mated at the synchronized oestrus following the second PG injection. The does in the control group were mated as and when they came to oestrus. Heat detection in the does was carried out by parading the vasectomised bucks twice daily and by observing the behavioural manifestations of oestrus. The results and conclusions of the study are given below. The PGF2alpha treated goats showed 75 and 100 per cent oestrus synchrony after a mean interval of 45.93+2.19h and 48.38+2.05 h following the first and second injection of PGF2alpha respectively. 11 Of the various signs of oestrus only rapid waving of tail in the presence of male and vaginal mucous discharge were observed in all the does in oestrus. Various signs of oestrus behaviour including receptivity was found to be more pronounced in oestrus synchronized does using PGF2alpha than in the controls. Mated does showed pricking of ear and arching of back as post coital reactions. Conception rate following mating at the first oestrus was better in the treatment group (85%) than the controls (75%). Body weight changes during pregnancy was not found to be affected by synchronization of oestrus with prostaglandin F2alpha. Mean gestation period in the treatment group was 148.14+0.80 days compared to 143.88+0.78 days in the controls/ the difference being significant (P < 0.05). Overall 61.3 per cent of the parturitions were observed to occur between 0600 to 1800 hours. Maternal behaviour studies showed no significant difference between the does in the control (av. score 3) and treatment group (av. score 2.8). Multiparas were observed to possess better maternal instinct than the primipara does. The new born kids attempted to stand up within 8 to 15 minutes and 68 per cent of them suckled from the dam's teat Ill within one hour of birth. In the control group 88 per cent of the kiddings were singles and 11.77 per cent twins compared to 85.71 per cent singles and 14.29 per cent twins in the treatment group. comparing the growth of kids with respect to body weights and body measurements at fortnightly intervals from birth to 90 days of age, showed that the growth rate of kids born from synchronized oestrus was similar to that of control kids. Suckling behaviour in the kids revealed that the overall mean duration of suckling was 2.61 minutes and mean rate of suckling was 49.65 g per minute. It was observed that the rate of butting and intensity of tail wagging increased as the flow of milk from the teats got reduced. The mean daily milk yield from first to thirteenth week of lactation in the control and treatment groups were found to be 0.509+0.015 kg and 0.493+0.014 kg respectively. Man hours requirements to look after the does and raising the kids born to tham to 90 days of age in both the control and treatment group, revealed that there was a man hour saving of 12.3 per cent in the oestrus synchronized group (treatment) than the untreated controls.
Open Access
ANALYSIS OF MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS IN HOMESTEAD DAIRY PRODUCTION UNITS
(COLLEGE OF VETERINARY AND ANIMAL SCIENCES Mannuthy - Thrissur, 1995) SUDHEER, S.; Rajagopalan, T.G.; SUDHEER, S.
The present study was carried out with a view of estimating objectively the existing practices of management, components of inputs and cost of milk production in the rural unorganised and organised areas. The study was carried out in Kalady panchayat of Ernakulam district. The required data was collected from the households by direct observation and personal interview using a pre-tested schedule. Cattle, buffalo and goats were the livestock species mainly reared by farmers. Most of the dairymen had a single cow unit. A reduction in herd strength was noticed in all the holdings during the last five years. Majority of farmers raised their own replacement stock. Regarding purchase of animals farmers generally preferred adult cows than heifers or calves. Farmers considered attributes like milk production appearance and confirmation, colour, temperament and age of animals, price and also his financial position before purchasing animals. Majority of households had pucca cattle sheds and the remaining had kutcha sheds. Lean to type houses were more in number than independent houses as it was easier to construct and incurred low construction cost. Most of the sheds had feeding mangers. The standing space provided for cows in the 11 sheds were more than the space recommended and the width of manger was less than the space recommended by both KAU and I CAR, The types of feed fed to livestock are compounded feed, concentrate cakes, roughages and crop by-products and residues. The feed stuffs were mainly purchased from private shops, markets or co-operative societies. None of the farmers purchased green fodder, they mainly depended on fodder collected from field bunds and other agricultural lands. The study revealed the allocation of feed stuff, it was higher for animals in milk followed by pregnant and dry cows and heifers. It was observed that dairymen of both organised and unorganised sectors fed DCP and TDN in excess of NRC recommendations. More attention was bestowed on the feeding of female calves than male calves as majority of farmers were interested in raising replacements. In the study area AI was the predominant practise in breeding. The study revealed that a large proportion of dairymen were not aware of heat signs and the right time for inseminating their animals. The longer calving interval was due to poor heat detection, conception failure and deliberate skipping of heat by farmers. Ill The households reported the incidence of infertility, reproductive problems, mastitis and minor ailments like anorexia, parasitism, diarrhoea, pyrexia and foot diseases. The study revealed that dairymen had poor knowledge about the need for vaccinations and deworming of their livestock. So also a good number of farmers were not even aware of cattle insurance schemes The average daily milk consumption was more in organised sector than unorganised sector. The quantity of milk retained for home consumption was less in both sectors When compared to the quantity of milk sold. There were three principal outlets for the sale of milk vis., milk societies, vendors and local consumers. Farmers due to the reason that they are getting the highest price from local sales preferred to sell milk to local consumers. There was very little use of hired labour in the study area. m all dairy activities family labour was engaged. Outdoor activities were mostly done by husbands and indoor activities were mostly done by wives. Another notable feature in household labour utilisation was the low level participation of children. cost was the major expenditure in the of milch cows followed by labour charges, deprecration, interest on fixed capital and medicines and IV miscellaneous cost. The cost of production of 1 litre of milk was highest in the marginal holdings and lowest in the medium holdings. The result of the study showed that cost of milk production decreased with the increase in size of land holding. One rupee investment in milk production generated the highest return of Rs.1.28 in medium holdings followed by Rs.1.27 in small and Rs.1.23 in marginal holdings. The cost of production nf liLii. of milk was lower in the organised sector as compared to the unorganised sector. One rupee investment in milk production generated Rs.1.18 in organised sector and Rs.1.26 in unorganised sector. Old age, immediate requirement for cash, poor production, disease, lack of family labour and bad temperament were the reasons for the disposal of animals. Out of the cows disposed majority belonged to marginal holdings. The most important constraints in dairying felt by the respondents were high cost of feed and fodder, low price of milk, inadequate knowledge about scientific feeding, lack of finance or subsidy and lack of family labour.

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