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ThesisItem Open Access IMPROVING EFFICIENCY OF PRODUCTION IN EARLY LACTATING DAIRY COWS THROUGH AUGMENTATION OF RUMEN BIOMASS PRODUCTION(COLLEGE OF VETERINARY AND ANIMAL SCIENCES MANNUTHY, THRISSUR, 2022-01-08) JASMINE RANI K.; Dildeep V.A study was conducted to assess the effect of supplementation of condensed tannin (CT), yeast and biotin alone and in combination on rumen biomass production and efficiency of production in early lactating dairy cows fed on total mixed rations (TMR). The study was conducted in four different phases. In first phase, TMR with 13% CP, 35% NDF and 60% NDF were prepared as basal diet. The TMR was supplemented with different levels of yeast and biotin and in vitro evaluation was conducted using in vitro gas production technique (IVGPT). In second phase the TMR was supplemented with combinations of yeast and biotin and in third phase combinations of yeast, biotin and CT were supplemented and evaluated as in phase I. Best combinations was selected based on true dry matter digestibility, true organic matter digestibility, metabolizable energy, total volatile fatty acid production, microbial biomass production and methane production using cluster analysis. Using the selected best two TMR, a feeding trials of two-months duration was conducted. In fourth phase twenty-five crossbred dairy cows (non-descriptive X Holstein Friesian X Jersey) in early lactation (within 10 days of calving) were selected from University Livestock Farm and Fodder Research and Development Scheme, Mannuthy, and were divided into five groups of five animals each. Yeast, biotin and tamarind seed testa (source of condensed tannin) were purchased from local market. The animals were allotted randomly to one of the five dietary treatments, G1 (Control)- TMR containing CP- 13%, NDF-35%, TDN- 60%, G2- G1+ 0.5g yeast, 1.5 mg biotin and 2.5g CT/kg feed, G3- TMR containing CP- 13%, NDF- 35%, TDN- 60% + 1.5 mg biotin and 5g CT/kg feed, G4 – TMR containing CP- 11%, NDF- 35%, TDN- 60% + 1.5 mg biotin and 2.5g CT/kg feed and G5 – TMR containing CP- 11%, NDF- 35%, TDN- 60% + 1.5 mg biotin and 5g CT/kg feed. All the experimental animals were fed as per ICAR feeding standard (ICAR, 2013). There was no significant difference in the average body weight and dry matter intake of lactating cows maintained on dietary treatments G1, G2, G3, G4 and G5. The digestibility of organic matter, ether extract and the neutral detergent fibre were significantly higher (P 0.05) in various haemato biochemical parameters such as haemoglobin, total protein, albumin, globulin, blood urea nitrogen, creatinine, alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase and beta-hydroxybutyrate whereas the non-esterified fatty acids and blood urea nitrogen were significantly lower in G2, G3, G4 and G5 compared to G1. There was no significant difference in serum mineral concentration between the groups and values were in the normal range for lactating dairy cows. In rumen fermentation parameters, total nitrogen, trichloro acetic acid precipitable nitrogen, ammonia nitrogen, acetic acid, butyric acid and total volatile fatty acid concentrations were not altered, whereas the propionic acid concentration and pH was significantly higher and acetate to propionate ratio was significantly lower in G2, G3, G4 and G5 compared to G1. The total purine derivatives and microbial protein production were significantly higher in G2, G3, G4 and G5 compared to G1. A relative bacterial abundance study using 16S rRNA based metagenome sequencing revealed that Bacteroidetes and Firmicutes were the predominant phyla in all the five dietary treatments. An increase in the Firmicutes to Bacteroidetes ratio was observed in G2 and G5 compared to G1, G3 and G4. Feed cost per kg milk produced were Rs. 20.06, 16.58, 19.60, 19.13 and 17.98 in G1, G2, G3, G4 and G5 respectively. Milk production in group G5 where low protein diet was fed, was comparable with that of group G2 animals fed on high protein diet. Thus, it can be inferred that supplementation of yeast, biotin and CT as prescribed for G5 can support milk yield as in groups given high protein feed. A significant increase in rumen pH, propionic acid concentration, better microbial protein yield along high concentration of fibre digesting bacteria might have facilitated this result.ThesisItem Open Access EVALUATION OF RUMEN FERMENTATION PATTERN AND NUTRIENT UTILIZATION IN MURRAH BUFFALO, VECHUR AND CROSSBRED CATTLE ON DIFFERENT FEEDING REGIMEN(COLLEGE OF VETERINARY AND ANIMAL SCIENCES MANNUTHY, THRISSUR, 2018-12-30) SAJITH PURUSHOTHAMAN; Shyama K.A study was conducted to assess the rumen fermentation pattern and nutrient utilization in Murrah buffaloes, Vechur and Crossbred cows fed different total mixed rations (TMR). Six each of Murrah buffalo, Vechur and crossbred calves were selected as uniformly as possible with regard to age (8-12 months), sex and body weight from Vechur farm, University Livestock Farm and Fodder Research and Development Scheme, Mannuthy and formed three treatment groups. In phase-I all the animals were fed with standard farm ration as TMR for a period of one month and rumen fermentation profile, nutrient digestibility, hematological profile and microbial protein production was studied. Thirty TMRs were prepared using unconventional feed ingredients available locally and green grass in 50:50 and in vitro evaluation of 30 TMRs in all three species was conducted using in vitro gas production technique (IVGPT). Ranking of the TMR’s was done using cluster analysis and two best TMR for each species were selected. Using the two TMR selected, two feeding trials of one month duration was conducted for all three species. The results revealed that rumen fermentation parameters such as rumen ammonia nitrogen, TCA nitrogen and total nitrogen were non significant between the groups. Crossbred cows fed with TMR containing dhanwantharam thailam residue (trial-I) showed significant increase in dry matter intake (per 100 kg and per unit metabolic body weight) than TMR containing rape seed cake (trial-II). Haematological and biochemical parameters falls in the physiological range for both groups. Apparent digestibility co-efficient for TMR containing dhanwantharam thailam residue showed significant improvement for ether extract digestibility while crude fiber digestibility was more in Trial-II. On volatile fatty acid analysis it showed increased concentration for acetic acid in trial-I while propionic acid production was improved in trial-II. In Murrah buffaloes, group fed with TMRs containing turmeric waste (trial-I) and tapioca starch waste (trial-II) did not show any significant difference for rumen fermentation parameters. Animals fed with TMR-I containing turmeric waste showed significantly improved digestibility for crude protein, organic matter and nitrogen free extract than animals fed TMR-2 containing tapioca starch waste. Volatile fatty acid profile showed increased concentration of acetic acid and acetate: propionate ratio in TMR-2. In Vechur cows animals fed with TMR containing soya sauce waste (trial-I) showed a significantly increased total nitrogen content than animals fed with tapioca starch waste in trial-II and control. All haematological parameters were not significant among animals of different groups and well within the normal range. In Vechur cows on volatile fatty acid analysis TMR-I fed animals showed improved acetic acid and total volatile fatty acid production than TMR-II and control. DMI/100 kg bodyweight and DMI/kg metabolic body weight were also significantly improved in Trail-I than as compared to animals fed with tapioca starch waste in trial-II. On thorough examination of results, it can be concluded that crossbred cows fed with TMR containing dhanwantharam thailam residues showed improved nutrient digestibility than animals fed with TMR containing rape seed cake without any difference in rumen fermentation parameters and hence can be recommended. In Murrah buffaloes, the group fed with TMR containing turmeric waste showed better performance and hence can be recommended. In Vechur cows the TMR containing soya sauce waste fed animal showed better nutrient digestibility and dry matter intake and hence recommended.ThesisItem Open Access EVALUATION OF COMPLETE FEEDS WITH VARYING LEVELS OF NEUTRAL DETERGENT FIBRE FOR LACTATING DAIRY COWS(COLLEGE OF VETERINARY AND ANIMAL SCIENCES MANNUTHY, THRISSUR, 2015-12-30) BIJU CHACKO; K. M. Syam MohanA study of six months duration was conducted to assess the effect of different levels of neutral detergent fibre (NDF) in complete feeds for lactating dairy cows in early and mid lactation on the basis of production performance, influence on rumen fermentation parameters and economics. Three isonitrogenous and isocaloric complete rations, T1, T2 and T3 with 25, 30 and 35 per cent NDF, respectively were formulated as per ICAR (1998). Eighteen dairy cows yielding approximately 10 kg of milk per day and within two weeks of calving were divided into three groups of six each, and allotted randomly to the three experimental rations. The results revealed that during the first four fortnights the body weight of cows fed on ration T3 was significantly higher (P<0.05) than those fed on T1 and T2, with T1 and T2 being similar (P<0.05). The animals in T3 started gaining weight from the first fortnight itself, while those in T2 started gaining weight from the second fortnight and those in T1 only in the third fortnight, indicating that the animals in T3 were able to withstand the negative energy balance at the start of lactation, better than T2 and T3. The average body weight of animals fed on the experimental rations, T1, T2 and T3 over the total 180 days experimental period was 343.13, 344.83 and 361.60 kg, respectively and the values were similar (P<0.05), even though it tended to be higher in T3 than T1 and T2. The average daily dry matter intake was 13.93, 14.36 and 14.64 kg for the animals fed on the experimental rations T1, T2 and T3 respectively, indicating that the intakes in the three dietary treatments were similar (P<0.05). The average daily milk yield of cows fed on the experimental rations T1, T2 and T3, over the total 180 days experimental period was 11.08, 11.81 and 12.09 kg, respectively; indicating that the milk yields were similar (P<0.05). The milk yield of cows fed on all the three experimental rations started increasing from the first fortnight onwards with cows fed on ration T3 attaining peak milk yield in the second fortnight while animals in T2 and T1 reached the peak in the third fortnight. The animals fed on ration T3 remained in peak milk yield for a total of six fortnights, while those fed on T2 and T1, remained in the peak for five fortnights, indicating greater persistency of milk yield in cows fed on ration T3 than T2 and T1. There was no significant difference (P<0.05) in various haematological parameters such as haemoglobin, glucose and blood urea nitrogen in blood; plasma protein parameters such as total protein, albumin, globulin and albumin: globulin ratio and mineral parameters such as plasma calcium and phosphorus levels at 1, 90 and 180 days of the experiment, between the three dietary treatments, with all the values being in the normal range for lactating dairy cows. There was no significant difference (P<0.05) in milk composition parameters such as fat, total solids, solids not fat and protein, between the three dietary treatments, with all the values being in the normal range for milking cows. The milk urea nitrogen (MUN) content of cows decreased linearly and significantly (P<0.05), with increase in NDF content of the ration and the values in the total experimental period was 13.14, 11.12 and 10.10 mg per cent, respectively for cows fed on the experimental rations T1, T2 and T3, which were within the normal range. There was no significant difference (P<0.05), between the dietary treatments, in digestibility coefficients of all nutrients, except acid detergent fibre, which was significantly higher (P<0.05) in T2 and T3 than T1, with T2 and T3 being similar (P<0.05). No significant difference was noted, in total purine derivatives excretion in urine, in both early and mid lactation, even though, in early lactation, the uric acid excretion was significantly lower (P<0.05) in T2 than T1, with T3 being similar (P<0.05) to both T1 and T2. The microbial protein synthesis of animals fed on the three experimental rations were similar (P<0.05). The animals fed on all three experimental rations showed a positive nitrogen (N) balance, with no significant difference (P<0.05) between the treatments. The pH of rumen liquor collected at the end of the experiment was 6.10, 6.10 and 6.17 for cows fed on the experimental rations T1, T2 and T3, respectively, with the values being similar (P<0.05) and in the normal physiological range of 5.80 to 6.40. The total volatile fatty acid content was highest in T3, followed by T2 and T1, in descending order (P<0.05), with the values being 73.71, 80.51 and 83.68 meq/l in cows fed on the experimental rations T1, T2 and T3, respectively. The rumen ammonia production was significantly lower (P<0.05) in T3 than T1 and T2, with T1 and T2 being similar (P<0.05) and the values were 26.02, 25.21 and 22.83 mg/ 100 ml in cows fed on the experimental rations T1, T2 and T3 respectively. The in vitro gas production values of the three experimental rations T1, T2 and T3 in early as well as mid lactation were similar. The metabolisable energy and digestible organic matter content of the three rations, calculated from the gas production values were also similar. The average number of days to first post partum heat for cows fed on the experimental rations T1, T2 and T3 were 70.17, 80.33 and 65.50, respectively indicating that cows fed on ration T3 came into heat earlier than cows fed on the other two rations. The average cost of production of one kg of milk in the total experimental period was Rs. 31.64, 30.99 and 30.98 in the groups T1, T2 and T3 respectively. A thorough evaluation of the results obtained in both phases as well as the total experiment revealed that cows in all the three dietary treatments performed well, with the complete rations T3 with 35 per cent NDF and T2 with 30 per cent NDF, showing better performance than T1 with 25 per cent NDF. Among T2 and T3 which were more or less comparable, the cows fed on the diet T3 had a higher body weight, was able to withstand negative energy balance better, had a higher average daily milk yield, remained in peak milk yield for longer period and came into heat earlier than those fed on T2. It could also be seen that animals fed on ration T3 had a significantly lower (P<0.05) MUN and rumen ammonia, had a higher (P<0.05) TVFA and lower rumen pH, a non-significant (P<0.05), but higher digestibility for NDF, ADF and crude fibre and a more positive N balance as well as per cent retention of N than T2, indicating that T3 was better than T2. These results suggest that complete rations containing paddy straw as the sole source of roughage, with 25 to 35 per cent NDF can be recommended for use among early and mid lactation dairy cows of Kerala, with 35 per cent being the ideal NDF level.ThesisItem Open Access EFFECT OF BREWERY WASTE ON NUTRIENT DIGESTIBILITY OF PADDY STRAW BASED DIET IN LACTATING COWS(COLLEGE OF VETERINARY AND ANIMAL SCIENCES-MANNUTHY,THRISSUR, 2009) S. SENTHILKUMAR; T V VISWANATHANTwo experiments were conducted, one to assess the effect of brewery waste on nutrient digestibility of paddy straw based diet in lactatiiig cows and the other to study the in vitro disappearance, degradability and rumen fermentation characteristics of various experimental feeds in Rumen Simulation Technique (RUSITEC). In animal study, eighteen early lactating cross bred cows within 20 days of lactation were selected and grouped into three as uniform as possible with regard to their age, body weight, parity, previous milk yield and stage of lactation. They were randomly allotted to the three dietary treatments Tl, T2 and T3. The control concentrate mixture and paddy straw formed the Tl ration. The animals of T2 and T3 were fed with experimental concentrate mixture containing 25 per cent brewery waste (on DM basis) and paddy straw as roughage. In T2, the brewery waste was fed separately on wet basis, while in T3, the brewery waste to be incorporated in the concentrate mixture was treated with required quantity of paddy straw, three days before feeding. A feeding trial was carried out for a period of 60 days. There was no significant difference (P>0.05) in body weight and average daily dry matter intake (DMI) of experimental animals among the treatment groups Tl, T2 and T3. The animals maintained on the three dietary treatments Tl, T2 and T3 showed an average daily milk production of 8.03, 10.14 and 11.09 kg, respectively during the 60 day period of the experiment. The milk production was significantly increased (P<0.05) from fourth week onwards in brewery waste fed groups (T2 and T3) when compared with control (Tl). The cost of feed per kg milk produced was lower in animals maintained on T2 and T3 rations (Rs. 7.89 and 8.37, respectively) than those fed control ration (Rs. 10.40). The brewery waste feeding did not affect milk composition such as percentage of total solids, milk fat, solids not fat (SNF) and milk protein and milk urea nitrogen (MUN). The four per cent FCM yield and total yield of milk fat and protein remained unaffected by brewery waste incorporation. Animals in all the three groups showed similar blood parameters such as haemoglobin, plasma glucose, plasma urea nitrogen (PUN) and plasma calcium and phosphorus. The MUN and PUN concentrations were significantly higher (PO.05) in T2 at 60th day than that of Tl andT3. There was no significant difference (P>0.05) in rumen fermentation parameters, such as ruminal pH, NH3-N and TVFA concentration of the animals fed three experimental diets Tl, T2 and T3. There was no significant difference (P>0.05) in apparent digestibility of DM, OM, CP, EE, NFE, ADF, cellulose and gross energy among the three treatment rations. Brewery waste fed groups (T2 and T3 ration) recorded significantly higher apparent digestibility of CF and NDF (PO.05) and hemicellulose (P<0.01) than those fed control diet. An in vitro experiment was conducted to study the disappearance, degradability and rumen fermentation parameters such as pH, total gas production, C02 production, NH3-N and TVFA and their fractions such as acetate, propionate, isobutyrate, butyrate and valerate concentration of experimental feeds incubated at different incubation periods in RUSITEC. The following experimental feeds were incubated in the RUSITEC, 1) control feed; 2) experimental feed (75%) + fresh brewery waste (25%) (EFFBW); 3) experimental feed (75%) + dried brewery waste (25%) (EFDBW); 4) fresh brewery waste (FBW); 5) dried brewery waste (DBW); 6) paddy straw (PS) and 7) brewery waste incorporated paddy straw (BWIPS). Among the feeds experimented in RUSITEC, disappearance was more in the control feed, EFFBW and EFDBW when compared to other experimental feeds. Similarly, the disappearance was more in BWIPS compared to paddy straw. The in vitro DM, CP, CF, NDF, ADF, hemicellulose and cellulose disappearance rate at all incubation periods were higher for FBW than those for DBW. The control feed, EFFBW and EFDBW had higher V and 'Z>' fractions, rate of degradation V and in vitro effective degradability of DM and CP than other experimental feeds such as FBW, DBW, PS and BWIPS and paddy straw showed the lowest. The BWIPS showed higher in vitro effective DM and CP degradability compared to paddy straw. The FBW showed higher DM and CP V and '6' fractions, rate of degradation V and effective degradability than DBW. A low in vitro DM and CP disappearance of 33.24 and 30.75 per cent, respectively were recorded at 72 hours of incubation (effective DM and CP degradability of 30.59 and 28.64 per cent, respectively), whereas the BWIPS had improved in vitro DM and CP disappearance of 42.25 and 38.36 per cent, respectively, at 72 hours of incubation (effective DM and CP degradability of 39.93 and 36.32 per cent, respectively). The data on in vitro rumen fermentation characteristics indicated that during initial incubation periods (2, 6, 12 and 24 hours), the control feed, EFFBW, EFDBW and FBW showed higher in vitro gas production than other experimental feeds, whereas, during later incubation periods (48 and 72 hours), DBW, paddy straw and BWIPS showed higher in vitro gas production than other experimental feeds. Almost similar in vitro C02 production and pH were recorded at all periods of incubation in seven experimental feeds incubated in RUSITEC. The FBW showed the highest in vitro NH3-N production at all incubation periods, followed by control feed and EFFBW. The paddy straw had the lowest NH3-N production at all incubation periods compared to other experimental feeds. However, the BWIPS showed slightly higher NH3-N production at all incubation periods than paddy straw. The EFF0W and DBW were intermediary NH3-N production at all periods of incubation compared to other experimental feeds in RUSITEC. The TVFA concentration was comparatively higher in control feed, EFFBW and EFDBW at all periods of incubation than the rest of experimental feeds. The FBW had higher TVFA concentration than DBW in later incubation periods (12, 24, 48 and 72 hours). The EFFBW had higher TVFA concentration during initial incubation periods (2, 6 and 12 hours) than DBW, whereas the DBW had higher TVFA concentration during later incubation periods (24, 48 and 72 hours). During initial incubation periods (2, 6, 12 and 24 hours) all the experimental feeds showed higher acetate concentration than later incubation periods (48 and 72 hours). The EFDBW showed the highest acetate, propionate and iso butyrate concentration (349.64, 266.54 and 90.63 mmol/1, respectively) at 24 hours of incubation, compared to other experimental feeds. The paddy straw and BWIPS showed lower acetate and propionate concentration at all incubation periods. From the RUSITEC experiment, the effective CP degradability of paddy straw, control concentrate mixture and experimental concentrate mixture (containing 25 per cent brewery waste) were 28.64, 53.97 and 52.37 per cent, respectively. The average daily RUP intake of the animals of three experimental groups Tl, T2 and T3 calculated using the effective degradability values were 0.68, 0.71 and 0.72 kg, respectively and the values are higher than the NRC (2001) recommended requirement of 0.50 kg RUP per day for early lactating cows producing 15 kg of milk. Inclusion of brewery waste at 25 per cent (DM basis) in concentrate mixture in a paddy straw based diet resulted in significantly improved milk production as well as digestibility of crude fibre, NDF and hemicellulose in medium yielding cows in early lactation. The cost of feed per kg milk produced was reduced by 24 per cent by incorporation of brewery waste at 25 per cent level in concentrate mixture (DM basis) in early lactating crossbred cows producing about 10 kg milk per day.ThesisItem Open Access PHYTASE SUPPLEMENTATION ON THE AVAILABILITY OF DIFFERENT MINERALS AND THEIR INTERACTIONS IN PIGS(COLLEGE OF VETERINARY AND ANIMAL SCIENCES-MANNUTHY,THRISSUR, 2009) K. Shyama; A. D. MercyTwo feeding experiments were conducted using 100 weaned piglets to study the effect of dietary supplementation of calcium, phosphorus and phytase in different levels and their interactions on growth, nutrient digestibility, mineral availability and blood and bone mineral profile. In experiment one, sixty four weaned Large White Yorkshire x Desi piglets (32 castrated male and 32 female) belonging to the Centre for Pig Production and Research, Mannuthy were used as experimental animals. All animals were dewormed before the start of the experiment. The piglets were divided into eight groups as uniformly as possible with regard to age, sex and weight. Piglets of each group were allotted randomly into four pens with two piglets in each pen. Piglets in each replicate were maintained under identical management conditions throughout the experimental period of 88 days. Restricted feeding was followed throughout the experimental period and daily feed intake was recorded. Clean drinking water was provided ad libitum in all the pens throughout the experimental period. The animals were fed with standard grower ration with 18 per cent CP and 3200 kcal of ME/kg of feed up to 50 kg body weight and finisher ration with 16 per cent CP and 3200 kcal of ME /kg of feed from 50 kg body weight. Eight dietary treatments with two levels of calcium (0.6 and 1 per cent) and two levels of phosphorus (0.3 and 0.6 per cent) were used with phytase (750 units /kg) and without phytase in a 2x2x2 factorial completely randomized design. The pigs were weighed at the beginning of the experiment and later on at fortnightly intervals. Blood samples were collected at the beginning and on 85' day of the experiment and a digestibility trial was conducted at the end of the experiment to determine the digestibility of nutrients and percentage availability of minerals of the experimental diets by total collection method. The results of the first experiment indicated that the levels of Ca, P and phytase had no effect on average daily gain, feed efficiency and DM intake among pigs reared under the eight dietary treatments, while there was significant interaction between Ca x P (P<0.05) and Ca x phytase (PO.01) on DM intake. The level of Ca and P and Ca x P x phytase interactions were significant for DM digestibility which resulted in lower DM digestibility for rations T3. T5 and T7 than that of other rations. Dietary levels of P and interaction between Ca x P (P<0.01) and Ca x phytase (P<0.05) were significant for EE digestibility. Hence rations T7 and T8 had lower (P<0.01) EE digestibility than the rest of the experimental rations. Crude fibre digestibility was affected by phytase and P x phytase interaction. Calcium availability was higher (P<0.01) in all phytase supplemented rations. Significant interactions between dietary Ca x phytase (P<0.01) and dietary P x phytase (P<0.05) were observed for Ca availability. Interactions between dietary levels of Ca x P (P<0.05) and Ca x phytase (P< 0.05) were found significant for availability of Cu and Mn respectively. Data on blood samples collected on 85th day revealed that phytase supplementation had significant effect (P< 0.01) on the plasma Ca levels of the animals fed the eight dietary treatments. The interaction between dietary Ca x P levels was also found significant (P< 0.01) for plasma Ca. Dietary levels of both Ca (P< 0.01) and P and interaction between Ca x P (P< 0.01), Ca x phytase and P x phytase (PO.01) were found to affect plasma P significantly. In case of plasma Zn dietary Ca was having significant (P< 0.01) effect and the interactions between dietary Ca x P (P<0.01), Ca x phytase (P<0.05) and P x phytase (PO.01) were also found significant. Dietary Ca, P and phytase levels had significant (P<0.05) effect on the plasma ALP activity. Cost of feed per kg body weight gain of pigs was lowest for ration Tl. Ration Tl with low Ca, low P and without phytase gave similar growth and feed efficiency with lowest cost of production compared to the other rations and thus Tl was taken as the control ration for the second experiment. The second feeding experiment was conducted for 114 days using 36 weaned Large White Yorkshire x Desi weaned piglets (18 castrated males and 18 females) belonging to the Centre for Pig Production and Research, Mannuthy and the animals were randomly allotted to the three dietary treatments, Tl- Control ration containing 0.6 per cent calcium and 0.3 per cent phosphorus, T2 -Control ration without any mineral supplements and with 750 units of phytase/kg feed and T3 - Control ration without phytase and mineral supplementation. A digestibility experiment was conducted to determine the digestibilih of nutrients and availability of minerals. Blood samples were collected before the start of the experiment and on 16th week. Radiological examination of femur and mandibles of the representative animals of three groups at the end of the study were done. All the male animals were slaughtered on attaining slaughter weight of 70 kg and the data on dressing percentage, loin eye area, back fat thickness, weight of internal organs were collected. Photograph of rib bone was taken during slaughter and bone ash percentage, bone calcium and bone phosphorus were estimated. Kidney samples were examined histologically to assess pathological changes, if any, due to the experimental rations. Body weight of pigs belonging to T2 (phytase supplemented ration) was significantly higher (PO.05) than that of T3 in fortnights 4, 6, 7, 8 and 9, while the difference between that of Tl and T2 were non significant in all the fortnights. There was no difference in feed efficiency and digestibility of nutrients among pigs reared under the three dietary treatments. The availability of Ca, P and Mn for T2 ration was higher than that of the control ration while the Mg availability was lower for T2 and T3 than that of Tl. Zinc availability was lower for T3 than that of Tl ration. Dressing percentage was lower (PO.01) for T2 and T3 than that of control and loin eye area was lower (P<0.05) for T3 than that of Tl and T2. There was no gross abnormality of femur and mandible on x-ray examination of pigs reared on three experimental rations. Histopathological examinations of kidney samples also were normal for pigs of Tl and T2 and T3. However ricketty beads were seen on ends of ribs on carcass evaluation, in pigs reared under T3. The bone ash content was also lower (PO.01) for animals fed ration T3 than that of Tl and T2. Thus feeding ration without any mineral supplementation showed deleterious effects on growth, mineral availability and bone ash content, but supplementation of phytase improved utilization of nutrients and minerals than that of T3 during the period of 114 days of the experiment. Feed cost /kg gain of Tl pigs was higher than that of T2 (P< 0.01) and T3 (P< 0.05). But the difference in the cost of production between T2 and T3 were non significant (P>0.05). It can be concluded that phytase supplementation of rations resulted in decreased feed cost / kg gain.ThesisItem Open Access EFFECT OF BYPASS PROTEIN ON YIELD AND COMPOSITION OF COMPOSITION OF MILK IN CROSSBRED COWS(COLLEGE OF VETERINARY AND ANIMAL SCIENCES-MANNUTHY,THRISSUR, 1995) V.H. KALBANDE; C.T. ThomasExperiments were carried out to evaluate common feeds and fodders based on their rumen degradability rates and to assess the effect of varying bypass protein levels in concentrate mixtures on rumen fermentatio profile and yield and composition of milk in Jersey crossbred cows.ThesisItem Open Access OPTIMUM ENERGY AND PROTEIN REQUIREMENTS OF BROILER RABBITS(COLLEGE OF VETERINARY AND ANIMAL SCIENCES-MANNUTHY,THRISSUR, 1995) p. GANGA DEVI; C.S. JAMESA detailed investigation involving two series of growth studies spread over a period of 24 weeks in Soviet Chinchilla and Cross Bred rabbits was carried out to establish the optimum energy and protein requirements for growth and to ascertain the optimum age for economic slaughter. One hundred and eight weanling Soviet Chinchilla and 108 weanling cross bred (SC X NZW) rabbits formed the experimental subjects. Rabbits of each breed were divided into nine identical groups and maintained factorially on three levels of crude protein (CP) viz., 12, 16 and 20 per cent and digestible energy viz., 2000, 2500 and 3000 kcal/kg for over a period of 168 days involving metabolism and slaughter studies during 8th, 16th and 24th week of experiment and production traits along with associated characters were studied and the salient results are presented. Rabbits maintained on different energy protein combinations showed significant difference in growth rate (P <0.01). Both dietary energy and crude protein were found to influence the average daily gain. The highest rate of gain was achieved in animals maintained on ration containing comparatively higher DE and CP while lowest rate of gain was noticed in animals maintained on low energy, low protein diet. On further scrutiny of the data, an appreciably better and identical gro\A4h response was observed in animals maintained on ration containing 3000 kcal DE/kg with 16 per cent CP and ration containing 2500 kcal DE/kg with 20 per cent CP in both pure bred and cross bred rabbits. It is also noticed that for maximum growth rate a ration containing 2500 kcal. DE/kg need be sufficient as further increase in DE have not evinced any better response on ADG, which supports the view that for optimum biological response, a ration containing 2500 kcal DE/kg is sufficient for both pure bred and cross bred rabbits. As between the periods it was observed that the animals attained maximum 11 ADG during the first 56 days of experiment and there after ADG gradually declines irrespective of the level of CP or DE in the ration. Both dietary energy and crude protein significantly influenced (P <0.01) the feed conversion efficiency of animals. Highest efficiency of feed conversion was noticed in rabbits maintained on Ration D containing 2500 kcal DE/kg and 20 per cent CP the values being 9.27 in SC and 8.85 in CB rabbits and further increase in DE from 2500 kcal/kg to the extent of 3000 kcal/kg did not contribute better feed efficiency. Data on feed efficiency further revealed that maximum efficiency was observed during the first eight weeks after weaning and there after there is a linear reduction in feed efficiency as the age advances, in all the nine dietary treatments. With regard to cost of production the maximum biological and economical efficiency could be observed in animals maintained on ration containing 2500 kcal DE/kg with 20 per cent CP and when the cost of production was evaluated in between the periods viz., 0 to 56 days, 56 to 112 days and 112 to 168 days, the cost efficiency is seen maximum during 0 to 56 days of experiment. Dry matter intake on percentage of body weight was found decreasing on increasing the dietary energy level. Haematological values were with in the normal range and were not significantly influenced by the dietary energy and protein levels. Digestibility of nutrients and percentage retention of nitrogen, calcium and phosphorus were significantly influenced by the dietary treatments with an increasing trend on increasing the dietary energy and protein level. From the metabolism studies carried out during 8th, 16th and 24th week of experiment, the percentage retention of nitrogen, calcium and phosphorus were found reduced on advancing the age of animals. Slaughter studies conducted at 8th, 16th and 24th week of experiment reveaJed that dressing percentage is directly proportional to the pre-slaughter weight of the Ill animals, ligher dressing percentage is recorded in animals having higher body weight and vice-vrsa. Carcass yield were higher at 16th and 24th week of experiment than that at eiglh week of experiment. Rerding the chemical composition of meat, the moisture and crude protein content otiry matter basis decreased on advancement of age, without any significant influence dietary treatments, while the fat content progressively increased with increase ige and dietary energy content. Total ash content (dry basis) decreased with increiin age and dietary DE levels. An increase in liver protein percentage was observed i increase in dietary protein level. As the dietary energy level increased, liver fat cent showed an increasing trend. Iodine number of the abdominal fat was not foundifluenced by the dietary energy-protein levels and age of the animal. Saponifican value also was not influenced by the dietary CP and age of the animal. Abnce of appreciable quantities of abdominal fat during the 8th week indicates 6t for the production of lean meat, animals can be slaughtered during 8th week aften/eaning. Evaiation of the data on slaughter studies indicate that broiler rabbits when slaughtere( during 8 to 16 weeks after weaning yielded maximum profit, the profit accrued isseen inversely proportional to the increase in age of the animals with maximum pofit obtained from slaughter during 8th week after weaning. Frori a critical evaluation of the data gathered during the present investigation it can be reaonably concluded that broiler rabbits require a dietary level of 20 per cent crude protei and 2500 kcal DE/kg feed for evincing optimum growth and slaughtering rabbits durig 8th week after weaning is ideal for maximum profit.ThesisItem Open Access INFLUENCE OF LEVEL AND DEGRADABILITY OF DIETARY PROTEIN ON EARLY LACTATION IN CROSSBRED COWS(COLLEGE OF VETERINARY AND ANIMAL SCIENCES-MANNUTHY,THRISSUR, 2003) ALLY., K.; Mercy, A. D.A stud\- was conducted in two phases to assess the influence of level and degradability of dietaiy protein on early lactation in crossbred cows. In phase 1. eighteeen crossbred cows in earh' lactation (within one month of lactation) were selected and grouped into three as uniformly as possible with regard to age. sex. paritx. prexious production and stage of lactation and xvere fed with the experimental rations comprising of concentrate mixtures having 26. 20 and 17 per cent CP on DM basis and paddy straw, xvhich were fed in the ratio 70:30 of total DM. The three rations contained 20. 15.41 and 13.2 per cent CP and 63.86. 61.28 and 62.5 per cent TDN on DM. respectively. Individual records of dailv intakes ol concentrate and paddx straw, dailx milk production, fortnightlx data on bodx weight and milk composition were maintained throughout the experimental period of 100 days. Blood samples were collected for assessing levels of haemoglobin, blood glucose, blood urea nitrogen (BUN), plasma calcium and plasma phosphorus. Rumen liquor samples were collected for assessing pH. rumen ammonia nitrogen (NH^-N). total xolatile fattx acid (TVFA) and lactic acid contents. A digestibility trial was conducted toxxards the end of experiment and reproductixe performance of the animals during the experimental period was also assessed. The average dry matter intake (DMI) of animals in the first group (2.99 per cent of body weight) was lower (P<0.05) than those of group II and III (3.54 and 3.79 per cent of the body weight, respectively). The body weight of animals of the three groups were similar, except in the fourth and sixth fortnight, when the weight of animals in the second group was significantly higher (P<0.01) than those of first and third. There were no significant differences in the milk production or composition between the groups during the course of studx. except during the fifth fortnight, milk fat content of group III was loxxer (P<0.05) than that of groups I and II. The pH and lactic acid contents of the rumen liquor 144 collected from animals of group I were higher (P<0.05) than those of groups II and III. while the rumen NH3-N concentration was lower (P<0.05) for the third group than that ol the first and second groups. There was no significant difference on the blood parameters such as haemoglobin, blood glucose, plasma calcium and plasma phosphorus, between the groups while the blood urea nitrogen (BUN) level in the 50"" day collection was significantly higher (P<0.01) in the second group than that of the third group. The digestibilit)' coefficient of the nutrients such as ether e.xtract (EE), crude fibre ( CF). neutral detergent fibre (NDE) and acid detergent fibre (ADF) were significantly higher (P<0.01) in the first group. All the animals in the second group and one each in the first and third group conceived during the experimental period. The average number of days from cah ing to first AI of the animals of the three groups were 122. 79.4 and 80. respecti\el\. the difference being nonsignificant. The cost of producing one kg milk in the three groups fed 20. 15.41 and 13.2 per cent CP rations was Rs. 7.79. 7.91 and 7.71. respectively. Results of the study suggest that CP level of 13.2 per cent in the total ration was sufficient to meet the requirements of cows in earh lactation, producing a peak of 10 kg milk. During phase II. 12 crossbred cows in early lactation (within one month of lactation) were selected and grouped into two as uniformly as possible as done in phase I. They were fed 17 per cent CP concentrate mixture' with two levels of undegradable protein (UDP) (26.8 and 42.9 per cent of CP) and paddy straw as the roughage in 70:30 ratio. The rations had 64.33 and 66.98 per cent TON respectively on DM basis. The experiment was conducted similar to that of phase I for a period of 100 days. In addition to the parameters estimated in the first phase, milk urea nitrogen also was estimated. There was no significant difference in the body weight of animals of the two groups during the experiment. The weekly average DMI was significantl\ higher (P< 0.01) in the first group from the third week of experimental period. The milk 145 production of the animals of the two groups was significantly different during the second and fourteenth week (P<0.01). during the seventh, eighth and thirteenth week (P<0.05) and during the ninth, eleventh and twelfth week (P=0.06). There uas no significant difference in the milk constituents between the two groups except for the fat and total solids which were higher (P<0.01) for the first group. Fhere was no significant difference in the protein and urea nitrogen levels in the milk, or any of the rumen parameters studied except for the rumen NH3-N level uhich was significanth higher (P<0.01) in group I. Except for a significantly higher (P<0.01) blood glucose le\ el in the first group on the 50"' day collection, there was no significant difference in the blood parameters studied between the groups. The digestibilit>- coefficient of the nutrients of the two rations were not different, except EE. which was higher (P<0.01) for the second ration. The reproducti\ e performance of the animals were not affected by the UDP level of the ration since three animals of the first group and two animals of first group conceived during the experimental period. Howe\ er the a\'erage days from calving to first service was numerically lower, though not significant, for the animals of the second group (90.7 in the first group and 74.8 in the second). The cost of production of one kg milk in the two groups was Rs. 6.33 and 7.36. respectively. The ration containing higher UDP (42.9 per cent of CP of concentrate mixture) maintained the milk production better than the low UDP ration, but the cost of production was also higher for high UDP fed group. From the overall results obtained in the present study it could be concluded that a level of 13.2 per cent of CP in the total ration was sufficient for meeting the protein requirements of early lactating crossbred cows producing around 10 kg per da\ . Increasing the UDP level from 26.6 to 42.9 per cent of the CP maintained production better, but cost of milk production was higher indicating that it is not economical to pro\ide high UDP ration for cows when the average daily production is around 10 kg
