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ThesisItem Open Access ASSESSMENT OF TECHNICAL EFFICIENCY OF NATURAL FARMING IN DRY TEMPERATE REGION OF HIMACHAL PRADESH(UHF Nauni, 2024-04-24) ISHITA MANDLA; Subhash SharmaThe present study entitled “Assessment of technical efficiency of Natural Farming in dry temperate region of Himachal Pradesh” was carried out in high hills temperate dry zone comprising of Pangi block of Chamba district, Lahaul block of Lahaul and Spiti district and Kalpa and Pooh block of Kinnaur district by taking representative sample of 320 farmers through simple random sampling by selecting 8 farmers from each of the 10-gram panchayats selected from the mentioned 4 blocks. The average family size was 5.68. The overall literacy rate and and literacy index were 90.79 percent and 2.76 respectively. Around 65.31per cent of the sampled household were engaged in agriculture, followed by services 20.80 per cent and business 13.89 per cent. The average number of workers were 3.71. The average size of the land holding was 1.69 hectares out of which the average cultivated area was 1.53 hectares. The average area under Natural Farming was 0.97 hectares and that under Conventional Farming was 0.56 hectares respectively. There were four major crop combinations under Natural Farming i.e. Vegetables, Cereals + Pulses + Millets, Apple + Vegetables + Pulse and Pulses + Vegetables. The major crops grown under Conventional Farming included pea, maize, cauliflower, potato, broccoli, apple and kidney bean. Under Natural Farming in Kharif season, the maximum cost of cultivation was in Vegetables combinations ₹ 60342.94. The Crop Equivalent Yield under natural farming system was highest in all the crop combination as compared to the conventional farming system and it ranged between 1.50 per cent to 16.30 per cent. In Kharif season, the percentage reduction in cost of cultivation under NF over the CF system ranged from 18.75 to 35.84 per cent. The gross returns under NF systems were highest in all crop combinations compared to the CF system. The Relative Economic Efficiency (REE) was highest in all the crop combinations under NF over CF system. The block-wise carbon emissions under Natural Farming were significantly lower compared to Conventional Farming in all four blocks. The Cobb-Douglas stochastic frontier estimates of technical efficiency in natural farming across different farm categories suggest certain inputs like Bijamrit, Jivamrit, Ghanjivamrit, and Agniastra have positive impacts on technical efficiency, while labour has a slight adverse effect. The logistic regression results for factors influencing the adoption of Natural Farming in different farm categories indicate that high yield, health benefits, farm size and decreased pest attack are significant factors positively affecting adoption in different farm categories. Farmers practicing Natural Farming in the study area face various challenges, with common constraints including a shortage of skilled labour, higher wage rates, labour intensiveness, and issues related to technical knowledge. These challenges can impact the overall adoption and success of Natural Farming practices, emphasizing the need for targeted support and training programs to address these issues.ThesisItem Open Access MARKETING AND PRICE BEHAVIOUR OF MAJOR VEGETABLE CROPS IN NORTH INDIA(UHF Nauni, 2024-04-22) ATUL CHAUDHARY; ShilpaThe present study is entitled “Marketing and price behaviour of major vegetable crops in North India”. For price behaviour and market integration, secondary data of prices and arrivals for Bhuntar, Dhanotu, Paonta, Solan, Ludhiana, and Delhi markets was extracted from the AGMARKNET portal from 2002 to 2022. For structure, conduct, and performance a total of 540 wholesalers were selected from the six selected markets i.e., 180 for each vegetable. For marketing analysis, a sample of 240 vegetable growers was selected using simple random sampling. Local markets of Bhuntar, Dhanotu, Paonta, and Solan were selected for conducting marketing study. Results of the study found that prices and arrivals of all three vegetables (cabbage, capsicum, and tomato) exhibited variability, with prices being more stable than arrivals. Prices were positively correlated across all markets, indicating synchronized movements. Cointegration analysis revealed long-term integration among the markets. Delhi was identified as the key market, sending price signals to other markets and having the highest speed of adjustment towards equilibrium. Forecasting models for each vegetable and market were developed using Holt-Winters Exponential Smoothing and SARIMA methods. However, based on RMSE and MAPE it was observed that the SARIMA model outperformed the HWE-S model. Structure, conduct, and performance analysis revealed that all markets were regulated, well-connected, diversified, and exhibited vertical integration. Market share concentration among wholesalers varied, with Dhanotu generally having the highest concentration across all vegetables. Open auctioning was the primary sale method, but transparency regarding sale and payment methods varied. Producer's share and marketing efficiency were highest in marketing channel A for all selected vegetables in all selected markets. Overall, this study provides valuable insights into the dynamics of cabbage, capsicum, and tomato markets in Himachal Pradesh and northern India, with implications for producers, traders, and policymakers.ThesisItem Open Access DYNAMICS OF MARKET AND TRADE PERFORMANCE OF VEGETABLES IN HIMACHAL PRADESH VIS-À-VIS INDIA(UHF Nauni, 2024-12-03) DIVYANSHU; Dr. Chandresh GuleriaThe present study entitled “Dynamics of Market and Trade Performance of Vegetables in Himachal Pradesh Vis-à-vis India”. For value chain analysis, a sample of 180 vegetable growers was selected using simple random sampling. Local markets of Bhuntar in Kullu district and Dhalli in Shimla district were selected for conducting marketing study. For price behaviour and market integration, secondary data of prices and arrivals extracted from the AGMARKNET portal from 2005 to 2022. For competitiveness and potentials of export, secondary data of export quantity and value extracted from UNCOMTRADE source from 2005 to 2022. Results of the study revealed that the literacy rate in the study area was found in case of male 91.36 and in case of female it was 89.59 per cent. Among the annual crops’ vegetable cultivation was more common among all categories of farms followed by cereals. In case of cauliflower, the highest output-input ratio was found highest in marginal farms 2.40 and break-even returns was Rs. 25958.92. In case of pea, the overall output-input input ratio was found to be 3.65. Overall break-even output was found to be and Rs. 23888.91. In case of potato, Overall output-input ratio was found to be 2.30. Overall break-even output was found to be 18.64 (Qtls.). In case of cauliflower, the highest degree of value addition was found to be 6.52 per cent at retailer’s stage (channel-IV). In case of pea, the degree of value addition in channel -II was highest at the processor's stage (56.31%) and lowest at the wholesaler's stage (1.09%). In case of potatoes, the degree of value addition in channel -II (potato chips) was highest at the processor's stage (409.65%) and lowest at the wholesaler's stage (1.79%). Chandigarh for cauliflower and Delhi for pea and potato were found to be the key markets which influence the prices in other markets. In forecasting models, TDNN performed better than ARIMA, it was considered as the best fit model with respect to minimum RMSE and MAPE value in all of the selected vegetable price series. The trade analysis revealed that the India have negligible export potential in selected vegetables. India is one of the world's largest producers of cauliflower, peas, and potatoes, but there are various factors that may make exporting these commodities challenging. Unavailability of labour, low price / non-remunerative price and storage facility were the major problems faced by growers and stakeholders. The study strongly suggested adequate information on seasonality of prices and arrivals would bridge the gap between production and marketing and Efforts are required to increase production efficiency and quality in order to stabilize markets and make the product acceptable and price competitive in other importing nation.ThesisItem Open Access Crop diversification : A case study of Bilaspur district of Himachal Pradesh(College of Horticulture and Forestry Dr YSP UHF, Neri, Hamirpur(H.P.), 2024-02-27) Akanksha; Negi, ChamanThe study analyzed the crop diversification: A case study of bilaspur district of Himachal Pradesh. A stratified multistage random sampling design was used to select a sample of 80 respondents from two different developmental blocks. The selected samples were further classified as marginal (<1 ha), small (1-2 ha) and large (>2 ha) category farmers on the basis of their land holdings. The result of the study revealed that the total cropped area under vegetable crops in kharif season was 25.23 per cent and rabi season 23.28 per cent. During Kharif season, tomato occupied the highest cultivation area i.e. 4.00 per cent followed by cucumber 2.46 percent and okra 2.46 per cent whereas, the highest area during rabi season i.e.5.53 per under cauliflower followed by pea 4.00 per cent and onion 0.92 per cent, respectively. Per hectare total cost of cultivation and gross returns were highest in case of tomato i.e. ₹112568.15 and ₹686747.70 respectively. The maximum employment was generated by the farm activities were 75.99 per cent followed by non-farm activities 24.01 per cent and employment generated through vegetable production was 45.05 per cent, services about 19.26 percent and 4.75 percent from MGNREGA. Different variables like operational holding, experience in farming, education, family size etc. Were regressed upon to determine the degree of diversification as determined by the Herfindahl and Entropy indices of diversification. The study was analysed and found that production and productivity increased after diversification and provided employment and income of all categories of farmers. Some of the problems identified in the study area were lack of awareness programmes, high transportation cost, difficulties in loan processing, non-availability of credit in time, non-availability of fertilizers in time and shortage of skilled labour. Whereas, lack of technical inputs were the major problems faced by the farmers. These issues need to be addressed through government intervention to encourage farmer of the study area towards crop diversification to increase their livelihood.ThesisItem Open Access ECONOMIC IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON THE LIVELIHOOD STATUS OF DAIRY FARM HOUSEHOLDS IN HAMIRPUR DISTRICT OF HIMACHAL PRADESH(UHF Nauni, 2023-12-23) ADITI SHARMA; Dr. ShilpaPresent study analyzed the “Economic impact of Climate Change on the livelihood status of dairy farm households in Hamirpur district of Himachal Pradesh” during the year 2022-23. Multistage random sampling technique was used for the selection of the respondents from the randomly selected four blocks named Bijhari, Nadaun, Hamirpur and Sujanpur out of 6 blocks. Then 3 panchayats from each selected block were selected randomly and 10 dairy farming households from each selected panchayat were selected randomly to constitute a sample size of 120 for the collection of the primary data. All dairy producers were divided into three categories for the purpose of data analysis: small category (1- 3 SAUs), medium category (4-6 SAUs), and large category (>6 SAUs). Farmers are reported to have an average size of 5.23 members with a literacy rate of 90.33 per cent and literacy index of 2.75 in accordance with socioeconomic data. The dependency ratios for family were 0.25. Total land holding was 1.10 hectares out of which 83.91 per cent was cultivated land covering the maximum portion. In the study area, a crop intensity of 172.03 per cent was found. The average number of cattle units was 4.74, of which 5.72, 12.09, 50.29, 26.28, and 5.21 percent were local cows, crossbred cows, buffalo, young stock, and heifers, respectively. The impact of climatic change on dairy farm households is calculated using secondary data acquired through the Indian Meteorological Department, Shimla for the 50 years 1981–2021. The Ricardian results demonstrated that the climate change has consequences on dairy farm households in the Hamirpur district and that there is analysis shows a nonlinear relationship among climate change and net revenue. Results shows that with the increase in maximum temperature net revenue was decreased while increase in minimum temperature and annual rainfall net revenue was increased. The marginal effects of climate variations on the net revenue of dairy households are assessed and showed that the net revenue was dropped by Rs. 39.15 and rise by Rs. 4.44 per day for every 1°C increase in minimum temperature and 1°C reduction in maximum temperature, respectively while the marginal revenue from annual rainfall was Rs. 0.20 which was very negligible. The Binary Logistic Regression model was used to examine farmer’s choices about the deployment of adaptation measures for climate risk. The findings suggested that a farmer's decision to adapt to climate change was influenced by socioeconomic factors such as farm income and farming experience. The most serious problem in the study area was lack of improved fodder crops (63.78%) and least problem was lack of dairy cooperatives (33.06%).In order to adapt with climate change suitable adaptation practices should be followed like improving feed practices and use of well acclimatised breeds and following the crop livestock diversification methodThesisItem Open Access ECONOMIC IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON LIVELIHOOD STATUS OF DAIRY FARMERS IN MANDI DISTRICT OF HIMACHAL PRADESH(UHF Nauni, 2023-12-23) JAHANVI SAINI; ShilpaThe current research examined the “Economic impact of Climate Change on the livelihood status of dairy farm households in Mandi district of Himachal Pradesh” during the year 2022-23. The study employed a multistage random sampling method to choose participants from four randomly chosen blocks, namely Balh, Sundernagar, Dhanotu, and Gohar, out of a total of six blocks. Subsequently, three panchayats were randomly selected from each of these chosen blocks, and ten dairy farming households were randomly selected from each of these villages, resulting in a sample size of 120 for gathering primary data. To facilitate data analysis, all dairy producers were categorized into three groups: small category (1-3 SAUs), medium category (4-6 SAUs), and large category (>6 SAUs). According to the socioeconomic data, the farmers in the region were found to have an average family size of 5.13 members, an 89.21 per cent literacy rate, and a literacy index of 2.73. The dependency ratios for both family members and all workers were 0.41. The majority, 87.92 per cent, of the total landholding consisted of cultivated land. The study area exhibited a crop intensity of 161.33 per cent. On average, there were 5.03 cattle units per household, comprising 4.80 per cent local cows, 41.01 per cent crossbred cows, 33.75 per cent buffalo, 13.21 per cent young stock, and 7.23 per cent heifers. This study looked at how climate change affects dairy farm households in Mandi district by using weather data from 1981 to 2021 provided by the Indian Meteorological Department in Shimla. The results showed that climate change has an impact on these households, and there is a nonlinear relationship among climate change and net revenue. When maximum temperatures rise, it reduces the income of dairy farms, but when minimum temperatures and annual rainfall increase, it can boost their income. To explain it further, for every 1ᵒC increase in minimum temperature and 1ᵒC decrease in maximum temperature, dairy farm income could drop by Rs. 40.44 and increase by Rs. 3.40 per day, respectively. The study also used a Binary Logistic Regression model to figure out why some farmers choose to adapt to climate change while others don't. It found that factor like farm income and their experience in farming influence their decision to adapt. In the study area, the biggest problem faced by dairy farmers was a lack of better fodder crops (64.82%), and the least concerning issue was a shortage of veterinary facilities (34.27%). In order to adapt with climate change suitable adaptation practices should be followed like improving feed practices and use of well acclimatized breeds and following the crop livestock diversification method.ThesisItem Open Access ASSESSMENT OF TECHNICAL EFFICIENCY OF NATURAL FARMING IN SUB-TROPICAL REGION OF HIMACHAL PRADESH(UHF,NAUNI, 2024-02-12) Chinglembi Laishram; Subhash SharmaPresent study “assessment of technical efficiency of natural farming in sub-tropical region of Himachal Pradesh” was carried out in Nalagarh, Ghumarwin, Una and Sundarnagar blocks by taking representative sample of 320 farmers through multistage random sampling having 80 farmers from each block. The average family size was 5.22. Of these, 47.42 per cent were men, 38.72 per cent were females, and 13.85 per cent were children. The literacy rate exhibited variation ranging from 87.13 to 89.10 per cent among different farm categories, with an overall average of 88.30 per cent. The overall literacy index was recorded as 2.70. 78.02 per cent of the studied households were involved in agricultural activities, while 13.48 per cent were engaged in services and 8.50 per cent were involved in business. The dependency ratio w.r.t family size was 0.30 which indicated that on an average one worker has to support less than one family member. The average number of agricultural workers was 3.19. The overall average land holding in the study region was observed to be 1.82 hectares. At an overall level, the total cultivated area accounted for 67.41 per cent, with 32.13 per cent allocated to natural farming and 31.08 per cent dedicated to conventional agricultural practices. The study region encompasses four primary crop combinations, namely: Vegetables, Cereal + Pulses + Vegetables, Cereal + Pulses, and Cereal + Pulses + Oilseed + Vegetables under natural farming system. The main crops cultivated under the Conventional Farming (CF) system for vegetable crops include cucumber, okra, French beans, potato, pea, and cauliflower and for cereal crop consist of maize and wheat. The primary pulses crops cultivated was Black-gram, Soyabean, and Chick-pea. The primary crops cultivated within the Oilseeds category comprise Sesame and Mustard. The Relative Economic Efficiency (REE) was highest in all the crop combination. When comparing natural farming to conventional farming, natural farming resulted in lower carbon equivalent emissions than conventional farming in all the crop combinations.The Stochastic frontier production function approach was used to technical efficiency in different farm category in the study area and was observed that the coefficients of Jivamrit, Bijamrit, Ghanjivamrit, Agniastra, Neemastra and Bramastra were positive and statistically significant at 1, 5 and 10 per cent level, respectively. Individuals in the treated group conserve Rs. 8189.62 more on average than those who are in the control group. The major problem faced by the farmers in different farm categories was non availability of specialized market, labour intensiveness, inadequate training facilities, non-remunerative prices for produce, etc.ThesisItem Open Access IMPACT OF PROTECTED CULTIVATION TECHNOLOGY ON VEGETABLE PRODUCTION AND AGRI-ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN MID HILL ZONE OF HIMACHAL PRADESH(UHF,NAUNI, 2023-12-20) NIYATI THAKUR; RAVINDER SHARMAABSTRACT The study on “Impact of Protected Cultivation Technology on Vegetable Production and Agri-Entrepreneurship in Mid Hill Zone of Himachal Pradesh” was examined during 2022-23. Mixed sampling design was used to select the respondents from Mandi and Solan districts of mid hill zone of HP to select a sample of 240 growers. The selected farmers were classified as marginal (<1 ha), small (1-2 ha) and medium (2-4 ha). The polyhouses were categorized as small (upto 250 m2), medium (251-500 m2) and large (501-1000 m2) polyhouses. Both primary and secondary data were collected and utilised for the study. Statistical tools, economic analysis using CACP concepts, break even analysis, propensity score matching, regression adjustment model, entrepreneurial behavior index, Kendall’s tau correlation, regression model, Garrett’s ranking, chi square and response priority index were employed in the study. Socio – economic analysis of the both protected and open vegetable growers revealed that not much significant difference was there. An average family size of about 5 members with a literacy rate of about 90 per cent was found. The dependency ratio for both protected and open cultivation ranged between 0.2 -0.25. In protected cultivation, the cultivated land accounted for 79.30 per cent of total land holdings and out of this, 36.65 per cent area was under vegetable crops. Whereas, in open cultivation, the cultivated land accounted for 77.47 per cent of total land holdings and out of this, 43.07 per cent area was under vegetable crops. Cropping intensity of 200 and 190.11 per cent was observed in protected and open vegetable cultivation respectively. For 1000 m2, it was found that the cost of cultivation was higher under protected conditions (Rs. 49595.76) than open conditions (Rs. 13588.64). The break-even point under protected conditions was Rs. 34129.81 which was higher than open cultivation (Rs. 2202.24). The percent margin of safety under protected conditions was 21.26 per cent whereas, it was 5.76 per cent in open conditions. The cost of cultivation of capsicum was higher under protected conditions (Rs. 48352.78) than open conditions (Rs. 12294.52). The break-even point under protected conditions was Rs. 33872.49 which was higher than open cultivation (Rs. 2276.71). The percent margin of safety under protected conditions was 21.22 per cent whereas, it was 5.18 per cent in open. The impact assessment done by PSM and RAM showed that protected cultivation was economical in terms of income (Rs.65,381 – 76,925) and employment generated (16.20 - 17.33 mandays) than open cultivation. The composite index entrepreneurial behavior index was found to be 74.58 using nine dimension of entrepreneurial behavior. The EBI and factors affecting it were also estimated and it was found that income, experience, area and extension contacts were the main significant factors. Major problems in the protected cultivation of vegetable crops in the area were distant markets, lack of knowledge about post harvest technologies and unavailability of healthy plant material based on response priority index done based on responses recorded.ThesisItem Open Access ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF NATURAL FARMING IN BILASPUR DISTRICT OF HIMACHAL PRADESH(UHF,NAUNI, 2023-09-30) NIDHI; SUBHASH SHARMAABSTRACT For the present study entitled “Economic Analysis of Natural Farming in Bilaspur District of Himachal Pradesh” a sample of 100 farmers practicing natural farming was selected from Bilaspur Sadar and Ghumarwin develpomental blocks using multistage random sampling technique. The study revealed that literacy rate was 94.44 per cent in males and 83.29 per cent in females whereas literacy index was 2.91 in males and 2.75 in females indicating that majority of farmers were educated but quality of education was poor. The average land holding was 1.15 ha out of which area under natural farming was 0.54 ha. Under natural farming major crop combinations adopted by farmers in Kharif season were Cereal-Vegetable-Pulse (0.22ha) followed by Cereal-Vegetables (0.10 ha), Vegetables (0.08 ha), Cereal-Vegetable-Oilseed crop (0.07 ha), and Cereal- Pulses (0.07 ha). In Rabi season, Cereal-Pulses (0.14 ha) followed by Cereal-Vegetables (0.11 ha), Cereal- Vegetable-Oilseed crop (0.10ha), Vegetables (0.05 ha), and Cereal-Vegetable-Pulse (0.04ha). The cost of cultivation under natural farming for Cereal-Vegetable-Pulse, Cereal-Vegetable-Oilseed crop, Cereal-Pulses, Cereal-Vegetables and Vegetables was Rs. 50,632.88/ha, Rs. 51,862.59/ha, 44,493.13/ha, 51,723.61/ha and Rs.53,110.65/ha in Kharif season and Rs. 52,880.79/ha, Rs. 51,811.02/ha, Rs. 46,889.45/ha, Rs. 45,028.03/ha and Rs. 47,374.74/ha in Rabi season, respectively. Yield under natural farming system is more in all crop combinations except Vegetables in both cropping seasons and in Cereal-Vegetable-Oil seed crop in Rabi season. The percentage increase in yield under natural farming over conventional farming system varied from 5.12 per cent to 15.81 per cent in Kharif season and 1.09 per cent to 4.08 per cent in Rabi season. The net returns were more in all crop combinations under natural farming as compared to conventional farming. The percentage increase in relative economic efficiency under natural farming over conventional farming ranged from 10.78 to 56.34 per cent in Kharif season and to 0.05 to 73.23 per cent in Rabi season. The output-input ratio was also higher under natural farming as compared to conventional farming system. The complete SPNF model was adopted by 54 per cent of the sampled farmers. Increased soil fertility, reduced pest attack, health benefits and increased net returns were the factors responsible for the adoption of natural farming. Non remunerative prices for the produce followed by non availability of specialized market, high wage rates, and labour intensive farming were the major problems reported by the farmers.
