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ThesisItem Open Access ASSESSMENT OF TECHNICAL EFFICIENCY OF NATURAL FARMING IN DRY TEMPERATE REGION OF HIMACHAL PRADESH(UHF Nauni, 2024-04-24) ISHITA MANDLA; Subhash SharmaThe present study entitled “Assessment of technical efficiency of Natural Farming in dry temperate region of Himachal Pradesh” was carried out in high hills temperate dry zone comprising of Pangi block of Chamba district, Lahaul block of Lahaul and Spiti district and Kalpa and Pooh block of Kinnaur district by taking representative sample of 320 farmers through simple random sampling by selecting 8 farmers from each of the 10-gram panchayats selected from the mentioned 4 blocks. The average family size was 5.68. The overall literacy rate and and literacy index were 90.79 percent and 2.76 respectively. Around 65.31per cent of the sampled household were engaged in agriculture, followed by services 20.80 per cent and business 13.89 per cent. The average number of workers were 3.71. The average size of the land holding was 1.69 hectares out of which the average cultivated area was 1.53 hectares. The average area under Natural Farming was 0.97 hectares and that under Conventional Farming was 0.56 hectares respectively. There were four major crop combinations under Natural Farming i.e. Vegetables, Cereals + Pulses + Millets, Apple + Vegetables + Pulse and Pulses + Vegetables. The major crops grown under Conventional Farming included pea, maize, cauliflower, potato, broccoli, apple and kidney bean. Under Natural Farming in Kharif season, the maximum cost of cultivation was in Vegetables combinations ₹ 60342.94. The Crop Equivalent Yield under natural farming system was highest in all the crop combination as compared to the conventional farming system and it ranged between 1.50 per cent to 16.30 per cent. In Kharif season, the percentage reduction in cost of cultivation under NF over the CF system ranged from 18.75 to 35.84 per cent. The gross returns under NF systems were highest in all crop combinations compared to the CF system. The Relative Economic Efficiency (REE) was highest in all the crop combinations under NF over CF system. The block-wise carbon emissions under Natural Farming were significantly lower compared to Conventional Farming in all four blocks. The Cobb-Douglas stochastic frontier estimates of technical efficiency in natural farming across different farm categories suggest certain inputs like Bijamrit, Jivamrit, Ghanjivamrit, and Agniastra have positive impacts on technical efficiency, while labour has a slight adverse effect. The logistic regression results for factors influencing the adoption of Natural Farming in different farm categories indicate that high yield, health benefits, farm size and decreased pest attack are significant factors positively affecting adoption in different farm categories. Farmers practicing Natural Farming in the study area face various challenges, with common constraints including a shortage of skilled labour, higher wage rates, labour intensiveness, and issues related to technical knowledge. These challenges can impact the overall adoption and success of Natural Farming practices, emphasizing the need for targeted support and training programs to address these issues.ThesisItem Open Access MARKETING AND PRICE BEHAVIOUR OF MAJOR VEGETABLE CROPS IN NORTH INDIA(UHF Nauni, 2024-04-22) ATUL CHAUDHARY; ShilpaThe present study is entitled “Marketing and price behaviour of major vegetable crops in North India”. For price behaviour and market integration, secondary data of prices and arrivals for Bhuntar, Dhanotu, Paonta, Solan, Ludhiana, and Delhi markets was extracted from the AGMARKNET portal from 2002 to 2022. For structure, conduct, and performance a total of 540 wholesalers were selected from the six selected markets i.e., 180 for each vegetable. For marketing analysis, a sample of 240 vegetable growers was selected using simple random sampling. Local markets of Bhuntar, Dhanotu, Paonta, and Solan were selected for conducting marketing study. Results of the study found that prices and arrivals of all three vegetables (cabbage, capsicum, and tomato) exhibited variability, with prices being more stable than arrivals. Prices were positively correlated across all markets, indicating synchronized movements. Cointegration analysis revealed long-term integration among the markets. Delhi was identified as the key market, sending price signals to other markets and having the highest speed of adjustment towards equilibrium. Forecasting models for each vegetable and market were developed using Holt-Winters Exponential Smoothing and SARIMA methods. However, based on RMSE and MAPE it was observed that the SARIMA model outperformed the HWE-S model. Structure, conduct, and performance analysis revealed that all markets were regulated, well-connected, diversified, and exhibited vertical integration. Market share concentration among wholesalers varied, with Dhanotu generally having the highest concentration across all vegetables. Open auctioning was the primary sale method, but transparency regarding sale and payment methods varied. Producer's share and marketing efficiency were highest in marketing channel A for all selected vegetables in all selected markets. Overall, this study provides valuable insights into the dynamics of cabbage, capsicum, and tomato markets in Himachal Pradesh and northern India, with implications for producers, traders, and policymakers.ThesisItem Open Access DYNAMICS OF MARKET AND TRADE PERFORMANCE OF VEGETABLES IN HIMACHAL PRADESH VIS-À-VIS INDIA(UHF Nauni, 2024-12-03) DIVYANSHU; Dr. Chandresh GuleriaThe present study entitled “Dynamics of Market and Trade Performance of Vegetables in Himachal Pradesh Vis-à-vis India”. For value chain analysis, a sample of 180 vegetable growers was selected using simple random sampling. Local markets of Bhuntar in Kullu district and Dhalli in Shimla district were selected for conducting marketing study. For price behaviour and market integration, secondary data of prices and arrivals extracted from the AGMARKNET portal from 2005 to 2022. For competitiveness and potentials of export, secondary data of export quantity and value extracted from UNCOMTRADE source from 2005 to 2022. Results of the study revealed that the literacy rate in the study area was found in case of male 91.36 and in case of female it was 89.59 per cent. Among the annual crops’ vegetable cultivation was more common among all categories of farms followed by cereals. In case of cauliflower, the highest output-input ratio was found highest in marginal farms 2.40 and break-even returns was Rs. 25958.92. In case of pea, the overall output-input input ratio was found to be 3.65. Overall break-even output was found to be and Rs. 23888.91. In case of potato, Overall output-input ratio was found to be 2.30. Overall break-even output was found to be 18.64 (Qtls.). In case of cauliflower, the highest degree of value addition was found to be 6.52 per cent at retailer’s stage (channel-IV). In case of pea, the degree of value addition in channel -II was highest at the processor's stage (56.31%) and lowest at the wholesaler's stage (1.09%). In case of potatoes, the degree of value addition in channel -II (potato chips) was highest at the processor's stage (409.65%) and lowest at the wholesaler's stage (1.79%). Chandigarh for cauliflower and Delhi for pea and potato were found to be the key markets which influence the prices in other markets. In forecasting models, TDNN performed better than ARIMA, it was considered as the best fit model with respect to minimum RMSE and MAPE value in all of the selected vegetable price series. The trade analysis revealed that the India have negligible export potential in selected vegetables. India is one of the world's largest producers of cauliflower, peas, and potatoes, but there are various factors that may make exporting these commodities challenging. Unavailability of labour, low price / non-remunerative price and storage facility were the major problems faced by growers and stakeholders. The study strongly suggested adequate information on seasonality of prices and arrivals would bridge the gap between production and marketing and Efforts are required to increase production efficiency and quality in order to stabilize markets and make the product acceptable and price competitive in other importing nation.ThesisItem Open Access ASSESSMENT OF TECHNICAL EFFICIENCY OF NATURAL FARMING IN SUB-TROPICAL REGION OF HIMACHAL PRADESH(UHF,NAUNI, 2024-02-12) Chinglembi Laishram; Subhash SharmaPresent study “assessment of technical efficiency of natural farming in sub-tropical region of Himachal Pradesh” was carried out in Nalagarh, Ghumarwin, Una and Sundarnagar blocks by taking representative sample of 320 farmers through multistage random sampling having 80 farmers from each block. The average family size was 5.22. Of these, 47.42 per cent were men, 38.72 per cent were females, and 13.85 per cent were children. The literacy rate exhibited variation ranging from 87.13 to 89.10 per cent among different farm categories, with an overall average of 88.30 per cent. The overall literacy index was recorded as 2.70. 78.02 per cent of the studied households were involved in agricultural activities, while 13.48 per cent were engaged in services and 8.50 per cent were involved in business. The dependency ratio w.r.t family size was 0.30 which indicated that on an average one worker has to support less than one family member. The average number of agricultural workers was 3.19. The overall average land holding in the study region was observed to be 1.82 hectares. At an overall level, the total cultivated area accounted for 67.41 per cent, with 32.13 per cent allocated to natural farming and 31.08 per cent dedicated to conventional agricultural practices. The study region encompasses four primary crop combinations, namely: Vegetables, Cereal + Pulses + Vegetables, Cereal + Pulses, and Cereal + Pulses + Oilseed + Vegetables under natural farming system. The main crops cultivated under the Conventional Farming (CF) system for vegetable crops include cucumber, okra, French beans, potato, pea, and cauliflower and for cereal crop consist of maize and wheat. The primary pulses crops cultivated was Black-gram, Soyabean, and Chick-pea. The primary crops cultivated within the Oilseeds category comprise Sesame and Mustard. The Relative Economic Efficiency (REE) was highest in all the crop combination. When comparing natural farming to conventional farming, natural farming resulted in lower carbon equivalent emissions than conventional farming in all the crop combinations.The Stochastic frontier production function approach was used to technical efficiency in different farm category in the study area and was observed that the coefficients of Jivamrit, Bijamrit, Ghanjivamrit, Agniastra, Neemastra and Bramastra were positive and statistically significant at 1, 5 and 10 per cent level, respectively. Individuals in the treated group conserve Rs. 8189.62 more on average than those who are in the control group. The major problem faced by the farmers in different farm categories was non availability of specialized market, labour intensiveness, inadequate training facilities, non-remunerative prices for produce, etc.ThesisItem Open Access IMPACT OF PROTECTED CULTIVATION TECHNOLOGY ON VEGETABLE PRODUCTION AND AGRI-ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN MID HILL ZONE OF HIMACHAL PRADESH(UHF,NAUNI, 2023-12-20) NIYATI THAKUR; RAVINDER SHARMAABSTRACT The study on “Impact of Protected Cultivation Technology on Vegetable Production and Agri-Entrepreneurship in Mid Hill Zone of Himachal Pradesh” was examined during 2022-23. Mixed sampling design was used to select the respondents from Mandi and Solan districts of mid hill zone of HP to select a sample of 240 growers. The selected farmers were classified as marginal (<1 ha), small (1-2 ha) and medium (2-4 ha). The polyhouses were categorized as small (upto 250 m2), medium (251-500 m2) and large (501-1000 m2) polyhouses. Both primary and secondary data were collected and utilised for the study. Statistical tools, economic analysis using CACP concepts, break even analysis, propensity score matching, regression adjustment model, entrepreneurial behavior index, Kendall’s tau correlation, regression model, Garrett’s ranking, chi square and response priority index were employed in the study. Socio – economic analysis of the both protected and open vegetable growers revealed that not much significant difference was there. An average family size of about 5 members with a literacy rate of about 90 per cent was found. The dependency ratio for both protected and open cultivation ranged between 0.2 -0.25. In protected cultivation, the cultivated land accounted for 79.30 per cent of total land holdings and out of this, 36.65 per cent area was under vegetable crops. Whereas, in open cultivation, the cultivated land accounted for 77.47 per cent of total land holdings and out of this, 43.07 per cent area was under vegetable crops. Cropping intensity of 200 and 190.11 per cent was observed in protected and open vegetable cultivation respectively. For 1000 m2, it was found that the cost of cultivation was higher under protected conditions (Rs. 49595.76) than open conditions (Rs. 13588.64). The break-even point under protected conditions was Rs. 34129.81 which was higher than open cultivation (Rs. 2202.24). The percent margin of safety under protected conditions was 21.26 per cent whereas, it was 5.76 per cent in open conditions. The cost of cultivation of capsicum was higher under protected conditions (Rs. 48352.78) than open conditions (Rs. 12294.52). The break-even point under protected conditions was Rs. 33872.49 which was higher than open cultivation (Rs. 2276.71). The percent margin of safety under protected conditions was 21.22 per cent whereas, it was 5.18 per cent in open. The impact assessment done by PSM and RAM showed that protected cultivation was economical in terms of income (Rs.65,381 – 76,925) and employment generated (16.20 - 17.33 mandays) than open cultivation. The composite index entrepreneurial behavior index was found to be 74.58 using nine dimension of entrepreneurial behavior. The EBI and factors affecting it were also estimated and it was found that income, experience, area and extension contacts were the main significant factors. Major problems in the protected cultivation of vegetable crops in the area were distant markets, lack of knowledge about post harvest technologies and unavailability of healthy plant material based on response priority index done based on responses recorded.ThesisItem Open Access STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT FOR CHANGING STRUCTURE OF LIVELIHOOD IN HIMACHAL PRADESH(UHF,NAUNI, 2022-12) MEHTA, GAGAN; VAIDYA, MANOJ KABSTRACT The present study entitled “Strategic Management for Changing Structure of Livelihood in Himachal Pradesh” was conducted during the year 2020-22 in Solan, Chamba and Kinnaur districts of the state selected from 3 different strata’s classified based on their per cent contribution to state GDP. Stratified multistage random sampling was used to select 120 respondents from each strata constituting a sample size of 360 respondents in the present study. At overall level the average family size was found 6.04 persons, out of which 55.31 per cent were males and sex ratio was found 808. Literacy rate and literacy index was estimated 78.37 per cent and 1.95 respectively. Agriculture was found to be the main occupation as 68.61 per cent of workforce practice farming at overall farm category level. The average size of land holding was found 0.97 hectare in which 48.47 per cent of the area was cultivated area and 24.99 per cent area was under orchard. At overall level cropping intensity without orchard and with orchard was worked out to be 169.36 per cent and 151.21 per cent respectively, which indicates that there is a scope to increase the farm efficiency. Income pattern revealed that main source of income was farm sector (83.66 %), with in farm sector horticulture sector contributed highest (77.01 %) to the total income on overall basis. Livelihood framework analysis revealed that, Strata-III outperformed Strata-I and Strata-II in terms of human, natural, social, and financial assets. As far as political asset is concerned it was found more in Strata-II as comparison to other strata’s. Furthermore, there was a noticeable difference was observed in the physical capital amongst different strata’s as Strata-I was better in physical capital as comparison to other strata’s. To identify the vulnerability of rural households, Livelihood Vulnerability Index (LVI) and LVI-IPCC approaches were used. According to LVI composite index approach Strata-II was found to be most vulnerable followed by Strata-I and Strata-III, whereas Strata-I was observed to be least vulnerable using the LVI-IPCC approach. Among all the government sponsored schemes, the schemes which had significant impact on livelihood of sample households were Kisan Credit Scheme (KCC), Horticulture Training and Extension Service, Sub-Mission on Agricultural Mechanization and MGNREGA. The result of the study showed that out of the 10 determinants of diversification of livelihoods identified: age of household head, level of education, family size, land-man ratio, access to irrigation, access to credit and distance to market were significant predictors of diversification of livelihoods. Furthermore, rural household income in the study area get boosted when respondents have higher livelihood diversification, better literacy rate, larger land holding, better irrigation facility, higher proportion of non-farm income share and less distance to nearest markeThesisItem Open Access ESTIMATION OF ECOTOURISM POTENTIAL IN HIMACHAL PRADESH BY USING NON-MARKET VALUATION METHODS(UHF,NAUNI, 2022-12) LUDARMANI; VAIDYA, MANOJ KUMARABSTRACT The present study entitled “Estimation of ecotourism potential in Himachal Pradesh by using non-market valuation methods” was conducted during the year 2021 - 22 in all five national parks of Himachal Pradesh. To find out use and non- use values of national parks, a sample of 500 visitors, one hundred from each national park were selected randomly. Estimation of recreational and other use values of environmental amenities of study area were done using the Individual Travel Cost Method (ITCM) and to capture the non-use values of the amenities of national parks by Contingent Valuation (CV) method. Various regression models were used for estimation of the demand curve. The results of study revealed that average visitation frequency for all national parks was about two times per visitors per year. The co-efficient of Travel Cost turned out to be negative and statistically significant which indicate that higher the amount of travel cost less will be visitation frequency for national parks. The estimated coefficients of education, environmental responses index and household income were also found to be positively significant, whereas the coefficients of travelling distance worked out to be negatively related. The average consumer surplus of the visitors estimated through truncated negative binomial regression was Rs. 2380.95/ person/ visit. The average total travel cost was found to be Rs. 5189.77 out of which 12.06 per cent was spent on entry fee, camera charges and camping charges etc. The main purpose of visit was recreational and aesthetic values and followed by educational or research purposes. The prime variable for estimation of the WTP was monthly household income which was found to be positively significant. The estimated coefficients of education and environmental responses index were also found positively significant, whereas the coefficients of age and family size were negatively significant. The per capita mean willingness to pay estimated Rs.730.80/person/annum. The average numbers of visitors per year during previous five years were 25989 and most of visitors were from native state (77.60 %), other states of the country (20.40 %) and only 2.00 per cent visitors were foreign nationals. The total use value of the park calculated from fifty per cent of consumer surplus was estimated Rs. 309.39 lakh and non-use value was estimated Rs. 189.92 lakh. Out of average annual expenditures for conservation and maintenance of parks 13.95 per cent costs were recovered from visitors and 86.05 per cent were recovered from government funds and various other funding agencies. The visitor charges can be raised from present Rs. 80.96 to upto Rs. 580.74/ person/ visit to cover whole amount of maintenance and conservation of national parks which is even below the calculated WTP.ThesisItem Open Access ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF VEGETABLE CULTIVATION IN HIMACHAL PRADESH(UHF,NAUNI, 2022-09) PARUL; SHARMA, SUBHASHABSTRACT The present study entitled “Economic analysis of vegetable cultivation in Himachal Pradesh’’ was conducted during 2021-22. Himachal Pradesh provides opportunity for production of different vegetables for sustainable income to farmers. The major vegetable crops grown in Himachal Pradesh are Pea, Tomato, Capsicum, Potato, Cauliflower and Cabbage which account for 63.43 per cent of total vegetable area and about 67.62 per cent of total vegetable production. Stratified multistage random sampling technique was used to select the vegetable growers. The selection of sampled vegetable growers was done from all the four agro-climatic zones of the state. At the first stage, two blocks from each agro-climatic zone were selected on the basis of area under vegetable cultivation. At the second stage, 5 Gram Panchayats were selected from each selected block.At the third stage, 10 farmers from each selected Gram Panchayat were selected randomly for collection of the primary data. Thus, sample of 400 vegetable growers were selected for the present study. Results of the study revealed that literacy rate was found 86.85 per cent with literacy index of 2.65 indicating low quality of education. Average land holding was found to be maximum (1.02h a) in Zone-IV followed by Zone-III (0.92 ha), Zone-II(0.80 ha) and Zone-I (0.73ha).At overall level, it was 0.87 ha. The cropping intensity (with orchard) was highest in Zone-I(186.53%) and lowest in Zone- IV(120.67%). In Zone-IV, cropping intensity was low due to more area under fruits. The cost of cultivation was found to be highest in kharif pea (Rs.173685.54 /ha) followed by tomato (Rs, 167431.18/ha), rabi pea (Rs.157928.15/ha), capsicum (Rs.154065.76/ha), cauliflower (Rs.144882.53/ha), cabbage (Rs. 142435.82/ha) and potato (Rs.141952.55/ha), respectively. Among these crops, cauliflower, kharif pea and potato crops were most profitable in Zone-IV with output-input ratio of 2.11, 2.09 and 2.05. Further, capsicum and kharif pea were most profitable in Zone-III and tomato was profitable in Zone-II with output-input ratio of 2.11. Among all the zones, the estimates of Cobb-Douglas production function determines the efficiency of each resource used and it showed that labor, FYM, seed, and plant protection chemicals all had a positive and significant impact on gross returns, whereas fertilizers and plant protection chemicals sometimes had a negative impact on the gross returns. Further, increasing return to scale was found in kharif pea (1.03) implying that doubling of input will result in increasing output more than double whereas, cauliflower, capsicum, tomato, potato, cabbage and rabi peas were decreasing returns to scale. The findings of the study revealed that possibility of increasing the farm profitability by optimum utilization of the available resources. At overall level, all the factors except family size, consumption habits and marketing losses have positive and significant impact on marketed surplus. Four main marketing channels were found prevalent in the study area for marketing of vegetable crops. Channel-A was found most efficient channel but quantity of produce sold through this channel was lower than other channels. From remaining three channels, channel-B, (Producer- -Wholesaler- Retailer-Consumer) was found to be the most preferred channel by the vegetable growers in all the zones except Zone-IV. The majority of the farmers in Zone-IV sold their produce through channel-C. It also observed that producer’s share in consumer’s rupee was maximum in channel-A (Producer-Consumer) and minimum in channel-C (Producer-Local trader- Wholesaler-Retailer-Consumer). It also showed that in most of the vegetable crops marketing cost, marketing margin, transportation cost, labour charges were found adversely affecting the marketing efficiency and volume of the quantity handled and net price received by the farmer improved the marketing efficiency. Disease, non- availability of the plant material, irrigation facility, lack of technical knowledge, lack of proper transportation facilities, lack of inadequate of correct prices and harassment by middlemen were some of the production and marketing problems reported by the farmers in the study area.ThesisItem Open Access ECONOMICS OF SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF LAND AND WATER RESOURCES IN MID HIMALAYAN AREAS OF HIMACHAL PRADESH-INDIA(UHF,NAUNI, 2021-09) KAPIL DEV; SHARMA, RAVINDERABSTRACT The present study entitled “Economics of sustainable management of land and water resources in Mid Himalayan areas of Himachal Pradesh-India” was carried out in the purposively selected Sirmaur, Bilaspur, Hamirpur, Kangra, Chamba and Kullu districts of the state. Multistage random sampling technique was used to obtain the representative sample of 280 respondents comprising of 140 adopters and 140 non-adopter respondents from selected districts. Results revealed that average family size at overall level comprises of 5.74 and 5.57 persons for adopters and nonadopters farms, respectively. The overall literacy rate was found to be 87.91 and 89.14 per cent, while literacy index were worked out to be 2.61 and 2.81 for adopters and non-adopters farms, respectively. Agriculture was found to be the main occupation as 69.26 per cent of workforce practice farming on adopter farms and 66.55 per cent on non-adopter farms. Overall adult cattle unit was found to be 3.60 on adopter farms and 2.21 on non-adopter farms. The average size of total land holding was found to be 1.22 ha and 1.16 ha on adopters non-adopters. The cultivated area and orchard area accounted for 50.74 and 22.35 per cent of the total land holding in case of adopter farms whereas 42.10 and 21.28 per cent for non-adopter farms at overall basis. The irrigated land was found to be 37.62 and 16.39 per cent of total land holding in case of the adopter and non-adopters farms, respectively. Overall cropping intensity with and without orchard area of adopter farms was found to be 160.22 and 186.76 per cent which was significantly higher than the overall cropping intensity with and without orchard area of non-adopter farm i.e., 149.18 and 174.04 per cent, indicating a shift towards high value cash crops and better use of land and water resources. The average value of Simpson index in adopter and non-adopter farms were estimated as 0.85 and 0.77 respectively at overall level, which indicated that the adopter farms were found more diversified as compared to nonadopter farms. Crop yield index value of adopter farms was higher than the non-adopter farms. Productivity, gross farm income, net farm income and output input ratio have been found to be higher on adopter farms as compared to non-adopter farms. The wages and salaries contributed the most to overall household income on both type of farms followed by agriculture and horticulture, respectively. The Gini index of total income for adopter farms (0.221) is higher than that of nonadopter farms (0.206), indicating that the income of households has been found to be more unevenly distributed in adopter farms as compared to non-adopter farms. In functional analysis, the included variables explained 95 per cent of variation in major agricultural crops for adopters and 97 per cent for non-adopters in overall farm category which were found to be significant for both type of farms and both type of farms were found decreasing return to scale (<1) indicating over optimal use of all the inputs which needs to be increased in order to achieve higher levels of input efficiency, which will lead to higher levels of net profits in the study area. Mean technical efficiencies of the adopters and non-respondents respondents were found to be 83 and 79 per cent. Thus, there is a potential for adopters and non-adopters respondents to increase their efficiency by 17 and 21 per cent, if they use their existing farm resources efficiently. In tobit regression, among included variables rainfall, area, literacy index and crop yield index showed a positive relationship with the dependent variable and significantly influenced the resource use efficiency while temperature and crop diversification were found negative relationship with the dependent variables on adopters and rainfall, temperature, area, literacy index and crop yield index showed a positive relationship with the dependent variable and significantly influenced the resource use efficiency while crop diversification was found negative relationship with the dependent variables on non-adopter farms. Major problems of adopter farmers in producing agricultural crops were found to be lack of appropriate prices of produce with garret mean score 6.42 per cent followed by high commission and cost of inputs (6.21 %), lack of transport facilities (6.10 %), whereas that on non-adopter farms were high commission and cost of inputs with garret mean score 6.23 per cent followed by lack of knowledge regarding recommended practices for crops and livestock (6.16 %), untimely availability and insufficient amount of irrigation water (6.09 %). Study suggested that the farmers involved in agriculture farming in the study area should be provided with additional proper technical knowledge for optimum utilization of resources which would help to increase the production and return of major agricultural crops.
