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Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur
The history of agricultural education in Kerala can be traced back to the year 1896 when a scheme was evolved in the erstwhile Travancore State to train a few young men in scientific agriculture at the Demonstration Farm, Karamana, Thiruvananthapuram, presently, the Cropping Systems Research Centre under Kerala Agricultural University. Agriculture was introduced as an optional subject in the middle school classes in the State in 1922 when an Agricultural Middle School was started at Aluva, Ernakulam District. The popularity and usefulness of this school led to the starting of similar institutions at Kottarakkara and Konni in 1928 and 1931 respectively.
Agriculture was later introduced as an optional subject for Intermediate Course in 1953. In 1955, the erstwhile Government of Travancore-Cochin started the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, Thiruvananthapuram and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences at Mannuthy, Thrissur for imparting higher education in agricultural and veterinary sciences, respectively. These institutions were brought under the direct administrative control of the Department of Agriculture and the Department of Animal Husbandry, respectively. With the formation of Kerala State in 1956, these two colleges were affiliated to the University of Kerala. The post-graduate programmes leading to M.Sc. (Ag), M.V.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees were started in 1961, 1962 and 1965 respectively.
On the recommendation of the Second National Education Commission (1964-66) headed by Dr. D.S. Kothari, the then Chairman of the University Grants Commission, one Agricultural University in each State was established. The State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) were established in India as an integral part of the National Agricultural Research System to give the much needed impetus to Agriculture Education and Research in the Country. As a result the Kerala Agricultural University (KAU) was established on 24th February 1971 by virtue of the Act 33 of 1971 and started functioning on 1st February 1972. The Kerala Agricultural University is the 15th in the series of the SAUs.
In accordance with the provisions of KAU Act of 1971, the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, were brought under the Kerala Agricultural University. In addition, twenty one agricultural and animal husbandry research stations were also transferred to the KAU for taking up research and extension programmes on various crops, animals, birds, etc.
During 2011, Kerala Agricultural University was trifurcated into Kerala Veterinary and Animal Sciences University (KVASU), Kerala University of Fisheries and Ocean Studies (KUFOS) and Kerala Agricultural University (KAU).
Now the University has seven colleges (four Agriculture, one Agricultural Engineering, one Forestry, one Co-operation Banking & Management), six RARSs, seven KVKs, 15 Research Stations and 16 Research and Extension Units under the faculties of Agriculture, Agricultural Engineering and Forestry. In addition, one Academy on Climate Change Adaptation and one Institute of Agricultural Technology offering M.Sc. (Integrated) Climate Change Adaptation and Diploma in Agricultural Sciences respectively are also functioning in Kerala Agricultural University.
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ThesisItem Open Access Bioactivity of carotenoids from shrimp shell waste(Department of Processing Technology,College of Fisheries,Panangad, 2010) Sindhu, S; KAU; Sherief, P MShrimp processing waste is the single largest industrial waste in the country causing diverse environmental problems. A study was carried out to assess the extractability of astaxanthin from shrimp waste in different organic solvents and vegetable oils. Extraction was tried using wet and dried waste, with and without deproteinisation. Waste was subjected to deproteinisation using alkali and enzyme (pancreatin). The different solvent systems tried were ether:acetone:water (15:75:10 v/v/v), acetone, hexane:isopropanol (3:2 v/v) and 90% acetone v/v. Astaxanthin in the extract was quantified by measuring the OD at 470 nm in hexane. Extraction was also done using vegetable oils viz. coconut oil, soybean oil and sunflower oil. Quantification of astaxanthin in pigmented oil was done by measuring the absorbance at 485 nm using 2155 as extinction coefficient. Astaxanthin yields from deproteinised samples were significantly lower than those from non deproteinised samples. The highest astaxanthin yield of 87.14 ± 4.55μg/g was obtained with non deproteinised wet waste extracted using acetone. The astaxanthin yield was significantly lower when oil was used as the extraction medium. Of the three oils coconut oil gave the highest yield. The results showed that acetone is the best solvent for extracting astaxanthin from shrimp shell waste in wet condition. The astaxanthin content in Aristeus alcocki shell waste is double that of Pandalus borealis shell waste, which is currently used as the commercial source of astaxanthin. The deep sea species Aristeus alcocki can thus be considered as a better source of astaxanthin for commercial exploitation than Pandalus borealis. TLC analysis of the shell waste extract showed that it contains free astaxanthin, astaxanthin monoester and astaxanthin diester in the ratio 1:1:2. GLC identification of the fatty acids esterified with astaxanthin revealed that saturated fatty acids, MUFA and PUFA are in the ratio 5:3:2 in monoester, whereas in diester they are in the ratio 4:3:3. The main fatty acids in monoester and diesters are palmitic acid, oleic acid, stearic acid and PUFAs: DHA and EPA. The in vitro antioxidant activity of the astaxanthin extract showed significant hydroxyl radical scavenging activity, superoxide anion scavenging activity and inhibition of lipid peroxidation. The IC50 values obtained were 56.43 ± 1.06 ng/ml, 27.91 ± 0.54 ng/ml and 26.54 ± 0.42 ng/ml, respectively. The antioxidant activity of astaxanthin from Aristeus alcocki was obtained at nanogram levels. This powerful antioxidant function may be due to the unique molecular structure of astaxanthin and synergistic effect of astaxanthin and PUFAs present in the astaxanthin monoester and diester fractions. The astaxanthin extract from shrimp shell waste significantly reduced carageenan induced paw edema in mice, percentage inhibition being 47.83 and 67.11 percent at astaxanthin concentrations of 0.5 mg/kg body weight and 1.0 mg/kg body weight, respectively. The inhibition of inflammation at 1.0mg/kg body weight was greater than that produced by the standard reference drug diclofenac. Cardioprotective effect of astaxanthin was examined in isoproterenol induced myocardial infarction in rats. Levels of diagnostic marker enzymes, LDH, CPK, GOT, GPT, CK, CK-MB in plasma, lipid peroxides, ascorbic acid, reduced glutathione and the activities of glutathione-dependent antioxidant enzymes GPx, GR, GST and antiperoxidate enzymes CAT, SOD and the membrane bound enzyme Na+ - K+ ATPase in the heart tissues of experimental groups of rats were determined. The prior administration of astaxanthin @ 10mg/kg feed for 45 days significantly prevented the isoproterenol-induced elevation in the levels of diagnostic marker enzymes in plasma, induction of lipid peroxidation and alterations in the level of reduced glutathione and in the activities of glutathione dependent antioxidant enzymes and antiperoxidative enzymes of experimental rats. Feeding astaxanthin caused a decrease in the inhibition of Na+ - K+ ATPase activity against isoproterenol induced myocardial infarction. The powerful cardioprotective effect of astaxanthin can be attributed to the multiple independent mechanisms viz. antioxidant effects, singlet oxygen quenching ability and inhibition of lipid peroxidation of membranes, increased functional gap junctional intercellular communication, anti-inflammatory effects etc. Immunostimulatory action of astaxanthin extract was evaluated in experimental mice. Astaxanthin administration was found to enhance the proliferation of spleen cells and bone marrow cells. Esterase activity was found to be enhanced in bone marrow cells indicating increased maturation of cells of lymophoid linkage. Astaxanthin also enhanced number of antibody forming cells and circulating antibody titre. Thus astaxanthin exhibits strong immunomodulating properties. A significant reduction in the viability of ascites tumour cells DLA in vitro was noted in the current study. The % viability was reduced to 4.34 % at a concentration of 15μg astaxanthin/ml. The cytotoxic action of astaxanthin against DLA may be through induction of apoptosis or through a different pathway. Antitumour activity of astaxanthin was studied by ascite and solid tumour models in mice. An increase in life span of about 67 % was noted in DLA bearing mice administered with astaxanthin at 5 mg/kg body weight. The tumour volume and tumour weight were significantly lower in mice injected with 5 mg/kg body weight astaxanthin. In vitro studies revealed that astaxanthin from shrimp shell waste of Aristeus alcocki inhibited the proliferation of cervical cancer cells HeLa in a dose dependent manner.ThesisItem Open Access Genetic characterization, controlled breeding and development of transgenic varieties of puntius denisonii (day, 1865).(Department of Aquaculture, College of Fisheries, Panangad, 2010) Manoj, C K; KAU; Mohanakumaran Nair, CPuntius denisonii, a beautiful ornamental fish indigenous to the Western Ghats, which has been indiscriminately exploited from the different rivers of Kerala has been recently declared to be vulnerable by the IUCN. The population structure and genetic diversity of P. denisonii has not yet been studied and documented. Many previous attempts to breed this fish in captivity have yielded negative results. The increasing demand for this fish to decorate aquariums worldwide could be satisfied only by developing controlled breeding techniques and larval rearing of its fry. In the present study, the present population structure of P. denisonii has been studied combining both phenotypic and genotypic techniques. Fishes were collected from Irrity, Chaliyar and Periyar rivers of Kerala. Truss network analysis was conducted and the size adjusted morphometric variables were subjected to Principal Component Analysis and Canonical Variance Analysis. Scatter diagram and Dendrogram was plotted using PCA and CVA loadings. The Irrity and the Chaliyar populations were grouped on the positive sector of the PC and CV component showing morphological similarities between the two populations while the Periyar population was placed in the negative sector of the component separated far from the other two. The PC scores were used to find out the variables showing maximum variation between fishes collected from different rivers. RAPD PCR was conducted after isolating DNA from the fins of different populations of P. denisonii. Universal random primers were screened and the primers that produced reproducible bands were selected. Popgene analysis of the binary data yielded the genetic structure of different populations of P. denisonii. Number and percentage of polymorphic loci, Nei's (1973) gene diversity, Shannon's Information index Lewontin (1972), Nei's Unbiased Measures of Genetic Identity and Genetic distance and Dendrogram Based Nei's (1978) Genetic distance using UPGMA --Modified from NEIGHBOR procedure of PHYLIP Version 3.5 were studied. The results obtained supports the truss analysis in that the Irrity and Chaliyar populations in Northern Kerala are genetically more similar while that of Periyar population in Central Kerala are distinct. P. denisonii was successfully induced bred under controlled conditions with synthetic hormone preparations Ovaprim and WOVA-FH. Stress during transport and handling was minimized and live feed was supplemented to enhance maturation of the broodstock. The whole developmental sequence starting from fertilized eggs to hatching was photographed and documented. It took 29-30 hours for the eggs to hatch at 280C. Rearing of fry was successfully accomplished under laboratory conditions. In an attempt to develop transgenic varieties of P. denisonii, pCMV-GFP was electroporated into newly fertilized eggs, maintained in hypoosmolar electroporation buffer. The electroporation parameters that yielded best results were 20V, 3 bursts at 1 second interval. Fin clips were taken from the transgenic individuals reared for a period of 6 weeks. Dot blot test was positive showing integration of the GFP gene in P. denisonii, eventhough expression was not detected under blue or UV light. The genetic and phenotypic data of P. denisonii populations in the present study will aid as a base line for formulating conservation procedures to protect the genetic diversity of wild ones. Stock identification studies are recommended for more concise information on each population. Moreover, the larval rearing and controlled breeding techniques along with the genetic diversity studies will help to design captive breeding programs and enhance the production of hatchery bred ones to meet increasing demand. Further research is recommended for generating transgenic lines with uniform GFP expression.ThesisItem Open Access Enhancement of propagation efficiency in exotic varities of heliconia(Department of Pomology and Floriculture, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2008) Reshmi, C R; KAU; Sheela, V LHeliconias are among the most popular garden plants, both for the ease with which they can be grown and the sheer magnificence of the blooms. Studies were conducted to standardize rapid propagation techniques under in vitro and in vivo conditions. Three heliconia varieties belonging to three distinct groups viz., St. Vincent Red (small erect type), Golden Torch Adrian (hybrid) and Sexy Pink (large pendent type) were selected for the study. For in vitro culture establishment, shoot tip explants were effective. The treatment of shoot tips with 0.10 per cent mercuric chloride for ten minutes followed by dipping in 0.05 per cent mercuric chloride for five minutes (after trimming) resulted in better surface sterilization. Longitudinal cutting of the in vitro established shoot tip with apical dome into two halves and culturing them separately produced the highest number of axillary buds. Addition of 0.05 per cent activated charcoal to the establishment media reduced the media browning and hastened shoot initiation. For culture establishment of all the three varieties, MS medium supplemented with BA 5.00 mg l-1 was found to be the best. Murashige and Skoog medium supplemented with BA 2.00 mg l-1 resulted in the highest shoot proliferation in the variety St. Vincent Red. In Golden Torch Adrian, BA 2.00 mg l-1 + NAA 0.20 mg l-1 gave better results. In the variety Sexy Pink, Kinetin 5.00 mg l-1 + NAA 0.20 mg l-1 was the best. For further multiplication in Sexy Pink, BA 1.00 mg l-1 was sufficient. Solid culture medium was better for shoot proliferation in the variety Sexy Pink. Higher sucrose concentration (40.00 g l-1) increased the multiplication rate, but reduced the length of shoots as well as the number of leaves. Addition of activated charcoal to the media as well as exposure of cultures to light had negative effect on shoot proliferation. Full MS medium was found to be the best for in vitro rooting of the variety Sexy Pink. Addition of NAA 0.50 mg l-1 to the MS medium gave better results for in vitro rooting in Golden Torch Adrian and Sexy Pink. Sucrose @ 30.00 g l-1 was sufficient for in vitro rooting in the variety Sexy Pink. Activated charcoal delayed root initiation and reduced the number of roots in the variety Sexy Pink. Sand recorded 90.00 per cent survival in all the three varieties after two months of planting out. At varietal level, significant difference was evident in the total number of suckers. In the first experiment, the variety St. Vincent Red (3.82) was significantly superior in terms of total number of suckers. However, in the second experiment, St. Vincent Red (4.06) was on par with Golden Torch Adrian (4.10). The variety Sexy Pink produced comparatively taller suckers in both the trials. Varietal variation in the number of leaves was observed only in the earlier stages. During the preliminary field experiment, the variety Sexy Pink excelled in leaf area at almost all stages of observation. Among the three varieties, highest collar girth was recorded by suckers of Sexy Pink variety during the first two stages of observation. However, towards the later stages, it was statistically on par with St. Vincent Red. Foliar spray was superior to rhizome dip in terms of total number of suckers, height of suckers and the number of leaves. In the case of leaf area, both the treatments were more or less on par. Application of growth regulators had pronounced effect on sucker production at all the stages during the first experiment when BA 750 mg l-1 produced the highest number (4.19) of total suckers. In the second experiment, variation was evident only in the total number of suckers. Here, BA 850 mg l-1 produced the highest number (4.33) of suckers and it was on par with BA 700 mg l-1 (4.00) and GA3 650 mg l-1 (3.79). Irrespective of the stage of plant growth, gibberellic acid produced taller suckers and BA 500 mg l-1 resulted in the shortest suckers. BA treatments recorded comparatively higher number of leaves. Growth regulator application had remarkably influenced the leaf area of suckers also. Application of BA 1000 mg l-1 (3.53 cm) and GA3 800 mg l-1 (3.33 cm) recorded higher collar girth in suckers. VG interaction exerted significant variation in the number of suckers. At varietal level, BA 750 mg l-1 produced the highest number of suckers in St. Vincent Red (4.75), GA3 500 mg l-1 in Golden Torch Adrian (4.63) and GA3 750 mg l-1 in Sexy Pink (4.00). Among VG treatment combinations in the second experiment, the highest number of suckers (4.75) in the variety St. Vincent Red was produced by BA 700 mg l-1. The varieties Golden Torch Adrian (4.88) and Sexy Pink (3.75) recorded the highest with BA 850 mg l-1. Gibberellic acid produced taller suckers. In the second experiment, VG interaction had no significant effect on the height of suckers. Regarding the number of leaves, BA resulted in comparatively higher number of leaves in both the experiments. In all the three varieties, BA 850 mg l-1 produced the highest number of leaves. Collar girth was found to increase with increase in the concentrations of BA and GA3 in all the three varieties. The economics of foliar application of growth regulators revealed that BA 850 mg l-1 significantly enhanced the profit in the varieties Golden Torch Adrian and Sexy Pink. Although negligible, BA 700 mg l-1 recorded slight positive response in the variety St. Vincent Red with respect to profit.ThesisItem Open Access Detergent potential of enzymes of dairy microflora and their effect on the shelf life of milk products(Department of Dairy Science, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 2010) Beena, A K; KAU; Geevarghese, P IA study was conducted to assess the detergent potential of a spoilage protease enzyme obtained from the microflora of dairy plant environment. An attempt was also made to study the impact of selected enzyme producers on the shelf life of curd (dahi) and sterilised skim milk. A total of 71 bacterial isolates obtained from dairy environment were screened for their ability to produce spoilage enzymes like proteases lipases and lecithinases. Based on the spoilage potential, Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P12) isolated from pasteurised milk and Bacillus cereus (S4) isolated from sterilized skim milk were selected for further work. The influence of spoilage enzymes on selected physico-chemical characteristics of curd (dahi) and sterilized skim milk was evaluated by preparing the products from milk precultured with isolate P12 and S4. In general, proteolysis of milk was found to have an adverse effect on the quality of products. The stimulatory effect of proteolytic products of P12 and S4 on curd starters was evident from the higher values of acidity, firmness and syneresis in treated curd. The spoilage enzymes adversely affected the overall quality and shelf life of curd. In treated sterilised milk, tyrosine and NPN values were highly elevated. A linear correlation was found to exist between off-flavour and proteolysis. Curd and sterilised skim milk prepared from milk precultured with proteolytic organism were significantly different from that of control. The possibility of exploiting an alkaline protease from spoilage organism in dairy plant sanitation was also looked into. Environmental conditions for the production of alkaline protease by a psychrotrophic strain of Bacillus cereus (S4) was optimised in whey based medium. The protease used in this trial preferred an alkaline medium to remain stable. The enzyme was found to be stable over a wide temperature range of -10°C to 80°C and a pH range of 7.0 to 12.0. The metal ions Ca++, Mg++, Zn++ and Hg++ enhanced the enzyme activity. Lack of inhibition by Hg++ suggested lack of disulphide bonds in the active site of enzyme. Significant inhibition of activity by serine inhibitors indicated an essential serine residue in the active site of enzyme. The deleterious effect of EDTA on enzyme activity showed the supportive role of divalent cations. Marked residual activity on treatment with β-mercaptoethanol indicated the absence of cysteine residue for the enzyme. Enhancement of protease activity in the presence of surfactants and stability in the presence of H2O2 signified its potential to be used as detergent additive. Qualitative assessment of cleaning efficiency of inbuilt formulation substantiated the superiority of enzyme based formulations. Ammonium sulphate fractionation, dialysis and gel filtation using seralose 4B and Seralose 6B were effective in purifying the protease preparation by 141.31 fold. The purified protease was found to be a homogenous preparation of molecular weight of 50.5 kDa as determined by SDS PAGE.ThesisItem Open Access Development and evaluation of different vaccines against duck pasteurellosis(Department of Dairy Science, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 2010) Jesto, George; KAU; Krishnan NairThis study was undertaken to develop biofilm vaccines against duck pasteurellosis using oil, saponin and aluminium hydroxide as adjuvants and to experimentally evaluate their immunogenicity in ducks. Identity of P. multocida serotype A: 1 (DP1) used for study was confirmed by biochemical tests and by PM-PCR and pathogenicity was established in Swiss albino mice before vaccine production. The LD50 (11 w) of the DP1 isolate determined was 10 CFU / bird and MDT was 23.75 h in 11 week old ducklings when a high dose of 3 X 10 6 CFU of P. multocida per bird was given. At 11 Weeks age MDT gradually increased as the dose of inoculum decreased. In 21 week old ducks, the LD50 (21w) of the isolate DP1 was estimated to be 3 ×108 CFU of P. multocida and it showed that the Kuttanad duck had decreased susceptibility to pasteurellosis with age. On light microscopic studies planktonic cells appeared to be Gram negative coccobacillary, while biofilm cells were Gram negative and pleomorphic. Electron microscopic studies revealed that P. multocida could form well differentiated classic biofilm and 0.32 per cent TSB media supplemented 0.5 per cent chitin seemed to be excellent medium for biofilm formation by P. multocida. Four different vaccines viz. OV, OBV, SV and SAV were prepared and all of them were found to be sterile and safe. The oil adjuvanted vaccines (OV and OBV) offered better protection compared to saponin and aluminium hydroxide adjuvanted vaccine groups (SV and SAV) following primary vaccination, up to seven weeks. The modified oil adjuvanted vaccine prepared was not only found to be homogenous, but also more efficient in stimulating a humoral immune response and hence may be recommended. The oil adjuvanation gave better protection than saponin and aluminium hydroxide adjuvanation. The SAV gave better protection than SV which might be due to the presence of aluminium hydroxide which potentiated the immunostimulating ability of saponin. The combined vaccine (SAV) although was found to be better than single vaccine (SV) they cannot be used as a substitute to oil adjuvanted vaccines. The booster vaccination was found to have added advantageous effect on protection and is a must, to prevent losses. Pasteurella biofilms although found to be weak in inducing a primary immune response had the potency to evoke a more powerful secondary response compared to planktonic cells. Vaccination done at six weeks age followed by booster vaccination at 16 weeks age seemed to be a better modification of existing schedule and may be recommended. In histopathological studies, lymphoid hyperplasia was observed in spleen in survived control birds and in SV and SAV vaccine groups that did not survive challenge test, which indicated the persistence of Pasteurella organisms through mild infection in them following experimental challenge. Lymphoid depletion was observed in caecal tonsil in experimental pasteurellosis as in spleen. As the survived vaccinated birds following challenge test showed normal intact caecal tonsil, the course of disease and lesions might be less prominent in vaccinated birds during infection process. The well developed bursa observed in OV and OBV birds that survived challenge test indicated that the humoral immune response was well induced in them compared to other groups. The designed primers E1 and E2 amplified the gene E and hence, this pair of primers could be used for the production of amplified Gene E sequences for further studies on recombinant ghost system. In conclusion, 0.32 per cent TSB media supplemented 0.5 per cent chitin seemed to be an excellent medium that support classical biofilm formation by P. multocida. Booster vaccination definitely had added advantageous effect on protection. Immunization at 6 weeks of age with OV followed by booster vaccination at 16 weeks age with OBV seemed to be a better modification of existing schedule and may be recommended. In histopathological studies, the lesions were less prominent in vaccinated birds than control birds which indicated that the vaccines were effective.ThesisItem Open Access Sulphur and boron nutrition and their foliar diagnosis in sesame(Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry,College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2010) Jeena, Mathew; KAU; Sumam, GeorgeA laboratory cum field experiment was conducted to study the effect of S and B on the growth, yield and quality of sesame var. Thilarani and to standardize the foliar diagnosis of these elements in Onattukara sandy loam soil. The study included an incubation study and two field experiments. The treatments comprising the different levels of S and B laid out in 42factorial RBD. The treatments were T1(S0B0), T2(S0B1), T3(S0B2), T4(S0B3), T5(S1B0), T6(S1B1), T7(S1B2), T8(S1B3), T9(S2B0), T10(S2B1), T11(S2B2), T12(S2B3), T13(S3B0), T14(S3B1), T15(S3B2), T16(S3B3). The different levels of S were S0 (0 kg ha-1), S1 (7.5 kg ha-1), S2, (15 kg ha-1) and S3 (30 kg ha-1) and B0 (0 kg ha-1), B1(2.5 kg ha- 1), B2 (5 kg ha-1) and B3 (7.5 kg ha-1). The incubation study was conducted at College of Agriculture, Vellayani to understand the dissolution and release pattern of S and B from their sources gypsum and borax respectively in Onattukara sandy soil. The results revealed that the release of S and B was maximum at the 30th DOI. Increasing levels of S and B has a positive influence on the S content of the soil. T16 (S3B3) recorded the highest value at all the sampling stages for S whereas in the case of B, the treatment combinations which received B at the highest levels in combination with S3 or S2 showed the highest value. The field experiments were laid out at ORARS, Kayamkulam in 42 factorial RBD having two replications using Thilarani as the test crop. It was observed that application of S and B favourably influenced the yield and yield attributes of sesame. T16 was found to be the treatment which gave the highest grain yield and oil yield in both the years and was found to be on par with T14 (S3B1). S3 was the superior S level. As for the different levels of B, B1 can be inferred as the best level. The content of saturated fatty acids such as palmatic and stearic acid showed a decreasing trend with increasing levels of S and B whereas the content of the unsaturated fatty acids showed an increasing trend. The quality attributes of oil such as acid value, iodine value and saponification value was also studied and it was found that there is a decreasing trend with regard to acid and saponification value and an increasing trend for iodine number. The grain protein content also showed an increasing trend with the increase in rate of application of S and B. Regarding the content and uptake of N, P, K, S, B, Fe, Mn, Cu and Zn, a favourable influence for the different levels of S and B was recorded. Results regarding the S and B use efficiency and their apparent recovery showed that with increase in levels of S, an increasing trend was observed for S. In the case of B, increase was noticed up to B1 (2.5 kg ha-1) and there after showed a decreasing trend. This positive influence was also reflected on the available nutrient status of the soil such as organic carbon content, available N, P, K, S, B and DTPA extractable micronutrients. Correlation studies conducted to standardize the part and stage of sampling for the foliar diagnosis of sesame showed petiole at 30 DAS and 20 DAS in the case of S and B respectively. The same stages were found for the soil sampling also for both the nutrients. The critical nutrient level in the part standardised for these two nutrients were standardized using the graphical method proposed by Cate and Nelson (1965). In the case of S, it had been standardized as 0.088 per cent and for B, it had been found to be 28 mg kg-1. The critical nutrient level in soil was also estimated using the scatter diagram technique and was found to be 23 kg ha-1 at 30 DAS for S and 1.4 ppm at 20 DAS for B. Hence the application of S @ 30 kg ha-1 and B @ 2.5 kg ha-1 could faourably enhance growth of sesame with regard to the growth characters, yield and yield attributes and the quality aspects. Moreover, analysis of the plant and soil samples at the critical stages fixed for the respective nutrients will provide the necessary data for the sustainable management of the crop in Onattukara sandy loam soil.ThesisItem Open Access Population dynamics and management of aphids in vegetable ecosystem(Department of Agricultural Entomology, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2009) Thamilvel, D; KAU; Hebsy, BaiEight species of aphids viz., A. gossypii, A. craccivora, A. spiraecola, A. fabae, A. nerii, H. setariae, M. persicae and L. erysimi were recorded from 32 vegetables in a survey conducted in the four taluks of Thiruvananthapuram district of Kerala. Occurrence of A. gossypii on C. grandis, M. oleifera and P. tetragonolobus; A. craccivora on C. gladiata, P. tetragonolobus and S. grandiflora ; A. spiraecola on A. tricolor, C. sativus, C. tetragonoloba, M. oleifera, M. charantia, M. koeingii, P. tetragonolobus and S. androgynus ; M. persicae on A. tricolor and R. sativu; A. nerii on C. annuum and C. frutescens was recorded for the first time from the State and H. setariae on A. tricolor and A. dubius from South India. One hundred and twenty two other plants were identified as host plants of the different aphids. A. gossypii was the dominant species noted, closely followed by A. craccivora, and A. spiraecola. Maximum species of aphids were recorded on amaranthus followed by winged bean. Among the vegetables surveyed, chilli and coccinia were highly susceptible to A. gossypii and winged bean and cowpea to A. craccivora. Mosaic disease incidence was noted in 10 vegetables. Predators were the predominant group of natural enemies associated with the aphids with the coccinellids constituting the major predatory fauna. Twenty species of coccinellids were recorded from different species of aphids on various host plants of which 13 species were new records from Kerala. M. sexmaculatus was the dominant species followed by C. transversalis, S. latemaculatus and C. septempunctata, Four species of syrphids were recorded of which I. scutellaris was predominant. P. yerburiensis and D. aegrota were recorded for the first time from Kerala. Leucopis sp. was the only Chamaemyiid species recorded from the vegetable fields. The chrysopids, C. carneae and A. octopunctata and the hemerobiid, Micromus sp. were the Neuropteran predators of the aphids recorded of which Micromus sp. was dominant. A. octopunctata was recorded for the first time from Kerala. Eleven species of spiders were observed in the vegetable fields among which, O. javanus, T.mandibulata, O. quadridentatus, O. shweta and Phidippus sp. were the frequently encountered species. Aphidius sp. was the most dominant parasitoid in the vegetable ecosystem. Aphelinus sp. and D. rapae were the other parasitoids recorded. Seven species of ants were observed attending the aphids. Studies on the population fluctuation of A. gossypii in chilli and A. craccivora in winged bean during a cropping season indicated that high population was seen during November and December. Correlation studies revealed a significant and positive correlation between the population of both the aphids with the insect predators, spiders and parasitoids. None of the climatic parameters had any significant influence on the aphid population. Excepting, maximum temperature which had a positive influence, all the other weather parameters viz., minimum temperature, relative humidity, rainfall and wind velocity had a negative influence on the population of the predators and parasitoids. Among the botanicals screened in the laboratory, only neem oil- garlic emulsion 2% and NeemAzal T/S 4 ml/l recorded more than 50 per cent mortality of A. gossypii and A. craccivora. Among the insecticides, the neonicotinoids viz., acetamiprid 0.002% imidacloprid, 0.003%, and dimethoate 0.05% proved superior to all other treatments. Dimethoate 0.05% was highly toxic to the coccinellids, syrphids and a hemerobiid (Micromus sp.) predator under laboratory condition. Between the two neonicotinods, acetamiprid 0.002% registered higher mortality than imidacloprid 0.003% whereas NeemAzal T/S 4 ml/l and neem oil + garlic emulsion 2% were safe to the predators. Foliar application of dimethoate 0.05%, acetamiprid 0.002% and imidacloprid 0.003% gave good control of A. gossypii, A. biguttula biguttula, S. dorsalis and A. dispersus in chilli and A. craccivora, A. dispersus, R. pedestris and M. vitrata in winged bean. NeemAzal T/S 4ml/l and neem oil garlic emulsion 2% too checked the population of the pests appreciably. Dimethoate 0.05% was highly toxic to the predators and parasitoids followed by acetamiprid 0.002% both in the chilli and winged bean fields. Comparatively, imidacloprid 0.003% was less toxic. The botanicals were safer to the natural enemies. Dimethoate 0.05% was highly toxic to soil fauna and flora whereas acetamiprid and imidacloprid were less toxic while NeemAzal T/S 4ml/l and neem oil + garlic emulsion 2% were non toxic. In both the trials, significantly higher yield was obtained from all the treatments. However, no significant difference was noted in the yields obtained from acetamiprid 0.002%, imidacloprid 0.003% and dimethoate 0.05% treated plots. Residues of imidacloprid were detected in chilli and winged bean fruits five days after spraying. While on the tenth day after spraying, residues of acetamiprid, and dimethoate were detected in chilli fruits, only residue of acetamiprid was recorded from winged bean pods. Imidacloprid was below detectable level (BDL). Residues of all the three insecticides were below detectable level when estimated fifteen days after spraying. Based on the results of the study, early detection of aphids on weeds and other host through regular monitoring, proper weed and ant management, conservation of the beneficials, application of neem oil + garlic emulsion 2% or NeemAzal T/S 4ml/l during the early stage of infestation and use of imidacloprid 0.003% when needed are suggested for aphid management in vegetables.ThesisItem Open Access Variability in asoka (Saraca asoca(Roxb.) de wilde)(Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2010) Vidhu Francis, Palathingal; KAU; Radhakrishnan, V VAsoka (Saraca asoca) is a sacred tree among the Buddhists and Hindus. It is called sorrow-less tree as it removes the grief. The tree has immense medicinal properties. Its bark is mainly used for correcting uterine problems. The well-known Ayurvedic preparations of asoka bark are Asokarishtam and Asokaghrutham. Due to over exploitation of this tree for its bark, this has now become almost extinct. The International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) has listed this species under ‘globally vulnerable’ category. It is also enlisted among the 36 threatened and endangered medicinal plants of India. Due to its acute short supply compared to its demand, various development and research activities are being prioritized to conserve, utilize and improve this species. Therefore the present study was undertaken to assess morphological variations in existing germplasm and to study the reproductive biology of S. asoca. Collection of seeds and evaluation of seed and seedling traits, evaluation of therapeutical components and molecular characterisation of asoka were the other objectives of the study. Variability studies for morphological traits of asoka indicated that height of plant and stem girth have high correlation with bark yield as well as higher direct effect. These traits can be used for identifying better genotypes for higher bark yield. In discriminant function analysis, the selection index involving height of plant along with bark yield constituted for selection criteria among asoka genotypes. Using this selection index, accessions IC566463, IC566489, IC566488, IC566482 were selected as better accessions for higher bark yield. The 43 accessions maintained in germplasm of asoka at AICRP on M&AP were grouped into two major clusters based on morphological traits. These clusters further formed 6 clusters. Accession IC566488 grouped alone in one cluster indicated that this accession was different from all other accessions. In all the other 5 clusters, accessions from Thrissur was included. This indicated that accessions did not follow geographical distributions. Some of the accessions from Thrissur may have relationship with accessions from other districts. Reproductive biology of asoka was studied. It indicated that the reproductive traits like floral biology, anthesis, pollen morphology, its viability have variability among eight trees studied in KAU campus. Among the eight trees studied, ‘KAU8’ have better reproductive traits compared to the rest. Preliminary studies were carried out in pollination system and agents for pollination in asoka. The studies indicated that ants may be one of the pollinating agents. Seed and seedling behaviour of asoka were studied on seeds collected from 80 trees located in different districts of Kerala. Seed breadth, seed volume, height of plant and stem girth were identified as selection traits for better seedlings. Hence at seed stage, bigger sized seeds with higher seed volume will result into better seedlings. Vigorous seedlings is produced from tall seedlings with higher stem girth and in mature plants for higher bark yield, height of plant and stem girth can be selection traits. Thus the selection parameters were worked out in three stages in asoka. Based on seed and seedling selection parameters, OKL4, OKL2 from Odakkali, KKL2 from Kottakkal and TVM2 from Thiruvananthapuram were selected as better mother plants for higher bark yielding accessions. The biochemical constituents (phenol and tannin content) imparting medicinal properties were estimated among the different age groups of asoka. Both phenol and tannin contents were higher in bark compared to flower and leaves. About 50 per cent of therapeutical constituents are available in flowers and hence at non destructive level, flowers of asoka can be substituted for bark. The trees KAU8, KAU7, KAU6 and among the accessions IC566474, IC566467 and among the seedlings VKA6, VKA7, VKA8, KMK3 indicated higher phenol and tannin content compared to rest. Molecular characterisation among the selected asoka accessions representing the different districts of Kerala were studied. RAPD analysis was attempted among ten accessions selected. Dendrogram was constituted based on pooled RAPD data. The ten selected accessions were grouped into two major clusters as done in morphological grouping. In grouping at molecular level, the accession IC566488 kept apart as a single group indicating the same trend at its morphological level.The clustering pattern based on molecular characterisation did not follow geographical distribution of accessions.ThesisItem Open Access Cross compatibility analysis for production of hybrids in anthurium andreanum linden(Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2010) MadhuKumar, K; KAU; Mayadevi, PThe present study, ‘Cross compatibility analysis for production of hybrids in Anthurium andreanum Linden’ was undertaken to identify suitable parents with commercial qualities and to determine the cross compatibility among the selected parents in anthurium. The present investigation was carried out in the Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, College of Agriculture, Vellayani during the period 2006-2009. The analysis of variance revealed significant variation among the 40 genotypes for the eighteen characters studied. This reveals the high genetic potential for the improvement in this crop. Variability studies indicated high phenotypic and genotypic coefficients of variation for the characters for anthocyanin content, pollen fertility, leaf size/leaf area, spathe size and spadix length. The high heritability coupled with high genetic advance values were found for characters plant height, leaf size/leaf area, internodal length, spathe size, total anthocyanin content, spadix length, inclination of candle with spathe, number of flowers per spadix, life of spadix, days to initiation of female phase, days to inter phase, duration of male phase, pollen fertility and pollen size. These characters are therefore controlled by additive gene action and amenable to genetic improvement through selection. Pollen fertility estimated using acetocarmine method indicated that most of the genotypes had low fertility values. Liver Red had the highest pollen fertility of 43.01 per cent followed by Lady Jane (36.14 per cent). Pollen emergence was low in the months from March to June, during which the average maximum and minimum temperatures were relatively high. Pollen emergence was highest during October to December months. A study of six qualitative characters such as colour of young leaf and petiole, spathe colour, spathe texture, candle colour and type of inflorescence axis also showed considerable variation among the genotypes studied. Plant height was found to have highly significant positive phenotypic and genotypic correlation with leaf size/leaf area, internodal length, total Anthocyanin content, spadix length, number of flowers per spadix and life of spadix. Number of flowers per spadix had significant positive genotypic correlation with plant height, leaf size/leaf area, internodal length, spathe size, spadix length, total anthocyanin content, life of spadix, pollen fertility and pollen size. Spadix length had significant positive genotypic correlation with plant height, leaf size/leaf area, internodal length, spathe size, number of flowers per spadix, life of spadix and pollen size. Days to initiation of female phase exhibited significant negative correlation with plant height, leaf size/leaf area, spadix length and pollen fertility. The environmental correlations were absent for almost all pairs of characters except for number of leaves/spadices per plant with spathe size. Path analysis revealed that spadix length, plant height, leaf size and life of spadix had high positive direct effect on number of flowers per spadix. Mahalanobis D2 analysis clustered the 40 genotypes into seven clusters. The maximum number of genotypes (17) were included in Cluster I, followed by cluster II (7), cluster III (5), cluster IV (5) and cluster V (4). Clusters VI and VII had one genotype each. Maximum divergence was shown between the Clusters II and VI, while the minimum divergence between clusters I and II. The intracluster distance was highest for the Cluster II. Among the 13 characters considered, life of spadix contributed maximum towards divergence followed by days to initiation of female phase. Grouping of genotypes into different clusters did not reflect the geographical origin of the varieties. Selection index analysis revealed that genotype Liver Red attained the maximum selection index value followed by PR x LR and PR x DT (1) and the minimum estimates were recorded for Rembolina, W x LJ and Corolix. The grouping of genotypes by selection indices followed almost the same pattern as their clustering pattern in the D2 analysis. Intervarietal hybridization was done to analyse the cross compatibility between 15 genotypes based on the percentage of candles bearing fruits, fruit set and seed germination. A total of 127 crosses were attempted based on the availability of receptive spadices and fresh pollen, out of which 80 were found to be successful. In almost all cross combinations the percentage of candles bearing fruits ranged from 50 to 100 per cent. Among the 15 genotypes, the maximum percentage of candles bearing berries was obtained for PR x OG (90.00 per cent) followed by AW (66.67 per cent) and PR x LR (65.00 per cent). The lowest value 5 per cent was obtained for Esmeralda and 11.11 per cent for Dragon’s Tongue. The number of fruits per candle ranged from 5 in Esmeralda x (PR x OG) to 85 in (PR x OG) x (OG x DT). The crosses LR x DT, (OG x DT) x (PR x OG), LR x FR and (PR x OG) x DT also recorded higher number of fruits per candle. The average number of fruits per candles was highest for Liver Red and lowest for Esmeralda. The percentage of fruit set was below 50 per cent for all the crosses. The lowest and highest percentage of fruit set was observed for Ceasor Violet and ‘Liver Red respectively. The berries obtained from different cross combinations took 4.5 to 7 months to mature. Most of the crosses had a high percentage of single seeded berries compared to double seeded berries except for the cross FR x LR. Among single seeded berries maximum seed size was for AW x (PR x OG). In a berry largest seed among the two seeded berries were observed for the crosses AW x (PR x OG) followed by [(PR x LR) x (PR x DT (2)]. The number of days taken for germination varied from four to nine days. The seeds obtained from most of the crosses showed germination except three crosses i.e., DT x LR, (KR x LR) x LJ and Esmeralda x (PR x OG) did not germinate at all. Percentage of germination was lowest in [PR x DT (2)] x LJ and highest in (PR x LR) x C. Seedlings of 57 out of 73 crosses that germinated survived for more than four months. The seedling survival percentage ranged from 38.46 per cent in LJ x (PR x OG) to 81.25 per cent in (KR x LR) x DT. The highest average survival was recorded by Liver Red and lowest was recorded for the genotype Lady Jane. Compatibility parameters estimated based on the performance of the fifteen genotypes as pollen parents. Highest percentage of candles bearing fruits was shown by PR x OG followed by Fla Red, Dragon’s Tongue and PR x LR. Lowest percentage were recorded for Flirt and KR x LR. Number of fruits per candle was the highest for the genotype PR x DT (2) followed by PR x OG, Dragon’s Tongue and Acropolis white. In Lady Jane, Flirt and KR x LR the number of fruits were relatively lower. Higher percentage fruit set was observed for the genotypes Dragon’s Tongue while it was lowest in Lady Jane. Percentage of seed germination was the highest for Fla Red and lowest for Lady Jane. Scoring of the compatibility reactions based on the percentage of fruiting candles, fruit set and seed germination on a scale ranging from zero to nine. After scoring the different genotypes, the crosses with highest compatibility score was for the crosses (PR x OG) x (OG x DT), (PR x LR) x C, FR x DT, AW x (PR x OG), (OG x DT) x (PR x OG), (PR x LR) x (PR x OG),PR x DT (2) x (PR x OG), (OG x DT) x LR, LJ x LR, (PR x OG) x DT, (PR x OG) x LR, (PR x OG) x (PR x LR) and (PR x LR) x FR. So these were the most compatible crosses. The performance of the variety as female parent was found to be different from its performance as male parent. The female parents PR x OG, PR x LR, Lady Jane, OG x DT and PR x DT (2) got the high varietal scores. Among male parents PR x OG, DT, OG x DT, FR and PR x LR got the high varietal scores. So PR x OG, OG x DT and PR x LR could be judged as the best male as well as female parents. Among the seedlings of the successful crosses maximum number of days for maturity of leaves was taken by the cross LJ x (PR x LR) and the least number of days was taken by C x (PR x OG). Number of leaves ranged from 4.50 in DT x FR to 6.33 in [(PR x OG) x (OG x DT)]. The leaf area was maximum for the cross LR x FR and it was minimum for LJ x (PR x OG). The colour of young leaf showed a range from brown to reddish brown to greenish brown to green. The colour of petiole also varied from brown to reddish brown to greenish brown to green.
