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Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur
The history of agricultural education in Kerala can be traced back to the year 1896 when a scheme was evolved in the erstwhile Travancore State to train a few young men in scientific agriculture at the Demonstration Farm, Karamana, Thiruvananthapuram, presently, the Cropping Systems Research Centre under Kerala Agricultural University. Agriculture was introduced as an optional subject in the middle school classes in the State in 1922 when an Agricultural Middle School was started at Aluva, Ernakulam District. The popularity and usefulness of this school led to the starting of similar institutions at Kottarakkara and Konni in 1928 and 1931 respectively.
Agriculture was later introduced as an optional subject for Intermediate Course in 1953. In 1955, the erstwhile Government of Travancore-Cochin started the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, Thiruvananthapuram and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences at Mannuthy, Thrissur for imparting higher education in agricultural and veterinary sciences, respectively. These institutions were brought under the direct administrative control of the Department of Agriculture and the Department of Animal Husbandry, respectively. With the formation of Kerala State in 1956, these two colleges were affiliated to the University of Kerala. The post-graduate programmes leading to M.Sc. (Ag), M.V.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees were started in 1961, 1962 and 1965 respectively.
On the recommendation of the Second National Education Commission (1964-66) headed by Dr. D.S. Kothari, the then Chairman of the University Grants Commission, one Agricultural University in each State was established. The State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) were established in India as an integral part of the National Agricultural Research System to give the much needed impetus to Agriculture Education and Research in the Country. As a result the Kerala Agricultural University (KAU) was established on 24th February 1971 by virtue of the Act 33 of 1971 and started functioning on 1st February 1972. The Kerala Agricultural University is the 15th in the series of the SAUs.
In accordance with the provisions of KAU Act of 1971, the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, were brought under the Kerala Agricultural University. In addition, twenty one agricultural and animal husbandry research stations were also transferred to the KAU for taking up research and extension programmes on various crops, animals, birds, etc.
During 2011, Kerala Agricultural University was trifurcated into Kerala Veterinary and Animal Sciences University (KVASU), Kerala University of Fisheries and Ocean Studies (KUFOS) and Kerala Agricultural University (KAU).
Now the University has seven colleges (four Agriculture, one Agricultural Engineering, one Forestry, one Co-operation Banking & Management), six RARSs, seven KVKs, 15 Research Stations and 16 Research and Extension Units under the faculties of Agriculture, Agricultural Engineering and Forestry. In addition, one Academy on Climate Change Adaptation and one Institute of Agricultural Technology offering M.Sc. (Integrated) Climate Change Adaptation and Diploma in Agricultural Sciences respectively are also functioning in Kerala Agricultural University.
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ThesisItem Open Access Enhancement of propagation efficiency in exotic varities of heliconia(Department of Pomology and Floriculture, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2008) Reshmi, C R; KAU; Sheela, V LHeliconias are among the most popular garden plants, both for the ease with which they can be grown and the sheer magnificence of the blooms. Studies were conducted to standardize rapid propagation techniques under in vitro and in vivo conditions. Three heliconia varieties belonging to three distinct groups viz., St. Vincent Red (small erect type), Golden Torch Adrian (hybrid) and Sexy Pink (large pendent type) were selected for the study. For in vitro culture establishment, shoot tip explants were effective. The treatment of shoot tips with 0.10 per cent mercuric chloride for ten minutes followed by dipping in 0.05 per cent mercuric chloride for five minutes (after trimming) resulted in better surface sterilization. Longitudinal cutting of the in vitro established shoot tip with apical dome into two halves and culturing them separately produced the highest number of axillary buds. Addition of 0.05 per cent activated charcoal to the establishment media reduced the media browning and hastened shoot initiation. For culture establishment of all the three varieties, MS medium supplemented with BA 5.00 mg l-1 was found to be the best. Murashige and Skoog medium supplemented with BA 2.00 mg l-1 resulted in the highest shoot proliferation in the variety St. Vincent Red. In Golden Torch Adrian, BA 2.00 mg l-1 + NAA 0.20 mg l-1 gave better results. In the variety Sexy Pink, Kinetin 5.00 mg l-1 + NAA 0.20 mg l-1 was the best. For further multiplication in Sexy Pink, BA 1.00 mg l-1 was sufficient. Solid culture medium was better for shoot proliferation in the variety Sexy Pink. Higher sucrose concentration (40.00 g l-1) increased the multiplication rate, but reduced the length of shoots as well as the number of leaves. Addition of activated charcoal to the media as well as exposure of cultures to light had negative effect on shoot proliferation. Full MS medium was found to be the best for in vitro rooting of the variety Sexy Pink. Addition of NAA 0.50 mg l-1 to the MS medium gave better results for in vitro rooting in Golden Torch Adrian and Sexy Pink. Sucrose @ 30.00 g l-1 was sufficient for in vitro rooting in the variety Sexy Pink. Activated charcoal delayed root initiation and reduced the number of roots in the variety Sexy Pink. Sand recorded 90.00 per cent survival in all the three varieties after two months of planting out. At varietal level, significant difference was evident in the total number of suckers. In the first experiment, the variety St. Vincent Red (3.82) was significantly superior in terms of total number of suckers. However, in the second experiment, St. Vincent Red (4.06) was on par with Golden Torch Adrian (4.10). The variety Sexy Pink produced comparatively taller suckers in both the trials. Varietal variation in the number of leaves was observed only in the earlier stages. During the preliminary field experiment, the variety Sexy Pink excelled in leaf area at almost all stages of observation. Among the three varieties, highest collar girth was recorded by suckers of Sexy Pink variety during the first two stages of observation. However, towards the later stages, it was statistically on par with St. Vincent Red. Foliar spray was superior to rhizome dip in terms of total number of suckers, height of suckers and the number of leaves. In the case of leaf area, both the treatments were more or less on par. Application of growth regulators had pronounced effect on sucker production at all the stages during the first experiment when BA 750 mg l-1 produced the highest number (4.19) of total suckers. In the second experiment, variation was evident only in the total number of suckers. Here, BA 850 mg l-1 produced the highest number (4.33) of suckers and it was on par with BA 700 mg l-1 (4.00) and GA3 650 mg l-1 (3.79). Irrespective of the stage of plant growth, gibberellic acid produced taller suckers and BA 500 mg l-1 resulted in the shortest suckers. BA treatments recorded comparatively higher number of leaves. Growth regulator application had remarkably influenced the leaf area of suckers also. Application of BA 1000 mg l-1 (3.53 cm) and GA3 800 mg l-1 (3.33 cm) recorded higher collar girth in suckers. VG interaction exerted significant variation in the number of suckers. At varietal level, BA 750 mg l-1 produced the highest number of suckers in St. Vincent Red (4.75), GA3 500 mg l-1 in Golden Torch Adrian (4.63) and GA3 750 mg l-1 in Sexy Pink (4.00). Among VG treatment combinations in the second experiment, the highest number of suckers (4.75) in the variety St. Vincent Red was produced by BA 700 mg l-1. The varieties Golden Torch Adrian (4.88) and Sexy Pink (3.75) recorded the highest with BA 850 mg l-1. Gibberellic acid produced taller suckers. In the second experiment, VG interaction had no significant effect on the height of suckers. Regarding the number of leaves, BA resulted in comparatively higher number of leaves in both the experiments. In all the three varieties, BA 850 mg l-1 produced the highest number of leaves. Collar girth was found to increase with increase in the concentrations of BA and GA3 in all the three varieties. The economics of foliar application of growth regulators revealed that BA 850 mg l-1 significantly enhanced the profit in the varieties Golden Torch Adrian and Sexy Pink. Although negligible, BA 700 mg l-1 recorded slight positive response in the variety St. Vincent Red with respect to profit.ThesisItem Open Access Population dynamics and management of aphids in vegetable ecosystem(Department of Agricultural Entomology, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2009) Thamilvel, D; KAU; Hebsy, BaiEight species of aphids viz., A. gossypii, A. craccivora, A. spiraecola, A. fabae, A. nerii, H. setariae, M. persicae and L. erysimi were recorded from 32 vegetables in a survey conducted in the four taluks of Thiruvananthapuram district of Kerala. Occurrence of A. gossypii on C. grandis, M. oleifera and P. tetragonolobus; A. craccivora on C. gladiata, P. tetragonolobus and S. grandiflora ; A. spiraecola on A. tricolor, C. sativus, C. tetragonoloba, M. oleifera, M. charantia, M. koeingii, P. tetragonolobus and S. androgynus ; M. persicae on A. tricolor and R. sativu; A. nerii on C. annuum and C. frutescens was recorded for the first time from the State and H. setariae on A. tricolor and A. dubius from South India. One hundred and twenty two other plants were identified as host plants of the different aphids. A. gossypii was the dominant species noted, closely followed by A. craccivora, and A. spiraecola. Maximum species of aphids were recorded on amaranthus followed by winged bean. Among the vegetables surveyed, chilli and coccinia were highly susceptible to A. gossypii and winged bean and cowpea to A. craccivora. Mosaic disease incidence was noted in 10 vegetables. Predators were the predominant group of natural enemies associated with the aphids with the coccinellids constituting the major predatory fauna. Twenty species of coccinellids were recorded from different species of aphids on various host plants of which 13 species were new records from Kerala. M. sexmaculatus was the dominant species followed by C. transversalis, S. latemaculatus and C. septempunctata, Four species of syrphids were recorded of which I. scutellaris was predominant. P. yerburiensis and D. aegrota were recorded for the first time from Kerala. Leucopis sp. was the only Chamaemyiid species recorded from the vegetable fields. The chrysopids, C. carneae and A. octopunctata and the hemerobiid, Micromus sp. were the Neuropteran predators of the aphids recorded of which Micromus sp. was dominant. A. octopunctata was recorded for the first time from Kerala. Eleven species of spiders were observed in the vegetable fields among which, O. javanus, T.mandibulata, O. quadridentatus, O. shweta and Phidippus sp. were the frequently encountered species. Aphidius sp. was the most dominant parasitoid in the vegetable ecosystem. Aphelinus sp. and D. rapae were the other parasitoids recorded. Seven species of ants were observed attending the aphids. Studies on the population fluctuation of A. gossypii in chilli and A. craccivora in winged bean during a cropping season indicated that high population was seen during November and December. Correlation studies revealed a significant and positive correlation between the population of both the aphids with the insect predators, spiders and parasitoids. None of the climatic parameters had any significant influence on the aphid population. Excepting, maximum temperature which had a positive influence, all the other weather parameters viz., minimum temperature, relative humidity, rainfall and wind velocity had a negative influence on the population of the predators and parasitoids. Among the botanicals screened in the laboratory, only neem oil- garlic emulsion 2% and NeemAzal T/S 4 ml/l recorded more than 50 per cent mortality of A. gossypii and A. craccivora. Among the insecticides, the neonicotinoids viz., acetamiprid 0.002% imidacloprid, 0.003%, and dimethoate 0.05% proved superior to all other treatments. Dimethoate 0.05% was highly toxic to the coccinellids, syrphids and a hemerobiid (Micromus sp.) predator under laboratory condition. Between the two neonicotinods, acetamiprid 0.002% registered higher mortality than imidacloprid 0.003% whereas NeemAzal T/S 4 ml/l and neem oil + garlic emulsion 2% were safe to the predators. Foliar application of dimethoate 0.05%, acetamiprid 0.002% and imidacloprid 0.003% gave good control of A. gossypii, A. biguttula biguttula, S. dorsalis and A. dispersus in chilli and A. craccivora, A. dispersus, R. pedestris and M. vitrata in winged bean. NeemAzal T/S 4ml/l and neem oil garlic emulsion 2% too checked the population of the pests appreciably. Dimethoate 0.05% was highly toxic to the predators and parasitoids followed by acetamiprid 0.002% both in the chilli and winged bean fields. Comparatively, imidacloprid 0.003% was less toxic. The botanicals were safer to the natural enemies. Dimethoate 0.05% was highly toxic to soil fauna and flora whereas acetamiprid and imidacloprid were less toxic while NeemAzal T/S 4ml/l and neem oil + garlic emulsion 2% were non toxic. In both the trials, significantly higher yield was obtained from all the treatments. However, no significant difference was noted in the yields obtained from acetamiprid 0.002%, imidacloprid 0.003% and dimethoate 0.05% treated plots. Residues of imidacloprid were detected in chilli and winged bean fruits five days after spraying. While on the tenth day after spraying, residues of acetamiprid, and dimethoate were detected in chilli fruits, only residue of acetamiprid was recorded from winged bean pods. Imidacloprid was below detectable level (BDL). Residues of all the three insecticides were below detectable level when estimated fifteen days after spraying. Based on the results of the study, early detection of aphids on weeds and other host through regular monitoring, proper weed and ant management, conservation of the beneficials, application of neem oil + garlic emulsion 2% or NeemAzal T/S 4ml/l during the early stage of infestation and use of imidacloprid 0.003% when needed are suggested for aphid management in vegetables.ThesisItem Open Access Effective agricultural information delivery system-an action research among farmers(Department Of Agricultural Extension, College Of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2008) Nazreen Hassan, S; KAU; Kishore Kumar, NExtension providers and client expectations include superior information accessing and dissemination, ongoing farmer-extension-research communications and marketing. AgIDS offer tremendous potential for accelerating development. They are transforming our lives, creating wealth and impacting every facet of human endeavor. Agricultural marketing requires connectivity between the market and exporters, growers, traders, industry consumers, through wide area network of national and international linkages in order to provide day-to-day information with regard to commodity arrivals and prevailing rates etc. this study was carried out with the objective of bringing out the underlying facts in the Information Communication technology available to the benefit of the farmers. Thiruvananthapuram district has been purposively selected for the study because this is the only district in Kerala having information kiosks being operated in the Krishibhavans. From the ten Krishibhavans three Krishibhavans were selected based on the maximum numbers of users of this ICT facility based on the records available in the Krishibhavans. The respondents were selected by random sampling method. 60 user farmers and 30 non-user farmers from each panchayat were selected and they formed the respondents of this study. A total of 270 farmers were contacted for the study. From a review of related literature and discussion with experts a comprehensive list of variables were selected. The dependent variables included attributes of ICT, Communication behaviour, information need and skill requirement. Majority of the farmers came under middle age group. Majority of the farmer in both the categories were found to be marginal farmers. Mostly the users were in a better socio economic group. The Extension Service must be able to provide information that makes a difference. ICTs are tools that help build human network, increase public awareness and provide access to information and knowledge for the use of people. They include Telephone, Fax, GIS, Radio, Television, Print, Internet, Video, Audio, Computer and technologies on the drawing boards. Possession of ICT tools by users was found to be higher than the nonusers except for farm magazines where the nonusers out-numbered the users. The mean of the socio technical variables was found to be the maximum for physical compatibility and desirability in the case of users. This was followed by social acceptability and simplicity. This was followed by physical compatibility and social acceptability. In both the cases user education had the minimum score. So this area needs more attention. Majority of farmers in both the categories perceived efficiency of ICT as ‘saving time and money in interacting’ and has ‘all information the farmer wants’ in the nonuser category. This was followed by one stop shop information by the users and supports marketing in the case of non users. There existed significant relation ship between the dependent variables. Also significant relationship was observed in the relationship that existed between some independent variables and dependent variables. A majority of the users claim that they slightly agree to the fact that their productivity has increased compared to the previous year. Analysis of variance showed a comparison between the user group and the non user group. It was found that the user group was higher in the case of all dependent variables. But in the case of information need it was found to be almost similar. A need assessment can help Extension educators to decide whether an extension program should be improved and how the services should be better delivered. The farmers needed information on agriculture such as market rates, bio pesticides, bio fertilizers. These areas ranked top in their information needs. This was followed by organic farming, plant protection and cropping practices. The skill requirement of the non-users farmers was more than the user farmers. The action research was conducted in the form of training on the skills of using computers. The participants for the research were selected by random sampling from the list of non user farmers’ interviewed. The farmers were exposed to the skills for five hours for two days i.e., for ten hours each to a group of thirty members. The influence of Training on the non-users observance on their knowledge gain, and skill acquisition at different intervals of time on the existing ICT facility was studied by documenting the knowledge gain, and skill acquisition at one week, one month and three months interval by the trainees. The results of paired‘t’ test on knowledge gain and skill acquisition showed high significance between different intervals of time. As perceived by the farmers it was found that lack in skill was the major problem that prevented most farmers in accessing through the ICT facility. The farmers also gave out some suggestions to bring this facility in a more effective manner. The study indicated anew strategy for solving the problems in technology dissemination by finding out the actual needs of the farmers in harnessing the benefits of ICT.ThesisItem Open Access Intra and inter generic hybridization and molecular charatrization in monopodial orchids(Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2008) Beena, Thomas; KAU; Lekha Rani, CA research programme entitled “Intra and inter generic hybridization and molecular characterization in monopodial orchids” was carried out in the Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, College of Agriculture, Vellayani during 2005-2008 with the objective of undertaking intra and intergeneric hybridization, in vitro embryo culture and molecular characterization in monopodial orchids, as a preliminary step to develop novel hybrids. Fifteen monopodial orchid genotypes comprising of six genera viz., Aranda, Aranthera, Kagawara, Mokara, Renanthera and Vanda, with good cut flower qualities and high demand in the market were selected as parents after initial evaluation. They were evaluated adopting completely randomized design with five replications. Analysis of variance revealed significant differences for almost all the characters studied. Genotypic and phenotypic coefficients of variation were high for thickness of leaf, leaf area and number of aerial roots. High heritability (>70 %) combined with high genetic advance (>70 %) was observed for number of aerial roots, width of leaf, thickness of leaf, leaf area, number of spikes per shoot and number of flowers per inflorescence. Significant positive inter-correlation at genotypic and phenotypic levels was observed for length of flower and width of flower with number of spikes per shoot. The character number of spikes per shoot recorded significant positive correlation with leaf area. Number of flowers per inflorescence was positively correlated with number of leaves per shoot and length of inflorescence. Out of the six genera studied, four viz., Aranda, Aranthera, Kagawara and Mokara, exhibited free-flowering nature. Seasonal flowering was observed mainly from June to December in Vanda, whereas it was confined to two seasons, from February to March and August to October in Renanthera. Inflorescence axis was found to be arching in Aranthera and Renanthera while the rest of the genotypes produced erect inflorescence axis. The 15 parental genotypes were crossed in all possible combinations after preliminary studies on floral biology. A total of 225 cross combinations were attempted including 105 crosses, 105 reciprocals and 15 selfs. Incompatibility reactions were noticed at different stages ranging from flower abscission before the onset of any visible post pollination change to instances where seeds germinated but aborted in culture. Mature green capsules were harvested from 70 combinations at 70 to 90 per cent maturity. Among them 15 combinations did not yield any seeds in the capsule while the remaining 55 combinations were cultured axenically. Among the 55 combinations inoculated in vitro, no germination was obtained from seeds of 12 combinations. Out of the 43 combinations that germinated successfully, seven combinations showed arrested development. Thus out of the total 55 combinations inoculated in vitro 36 combinations developed successfully. These were subcultured three to four times. Seedlings having 2-3 leaves and 2-3 roots were deflasked and planted out. MS half strength was selected as the best basal medium. For improving the in vitro growth of hybrid monopodial orchid seedlings refinement of this medium by supplementing with IAA (8 mg l-1) and NAA (2 mg l-1) was beneficial. Significant differences among the combinations were observed with respect to number of days taken for germination initiation, number of days taken for development of protocorms, chlorophyll, first leaf, first shoot and first root primordia and for deflasking. Significant differences in seedling morphology were observed among the 36 hybrid combinations at deflasking. These were kept in humidity chamber for acclimatization for one month, transferred to net house for hardening and maintained there for further growth. In the present study, RAPD was employed for studying the genetic diversity and for the fingerprinting of 20 monopodial orchid hybrids, making use of arbitrary primers to amplify random DNA sequences in the genome. To identify the promising primers for RAPD analysis, 70 decamer primers of kit A, B, C and D were screened using the DNA of hybrid H-2. Based on the performance in DNA amplification, eight decamer primers were identified for RAPD analysis. Primers that produced highest number of polymorphic bands which were intense and reproducible were selected. They were OPB-07, OPB-15, OPB-l7, OPC-04, OPC-05, OPC-08, OPC-15 and OPD-02. a total of 57 scorable bands (average of 7.125 bands per primer) were generated by the selected eight primers of which six were monomorphic and the remaining 51 were polymorphic (89.47%). The estimation of Jaccard’s coefficients and construction of dendrogram by using UPGMA revealed the presence and extent of genetic similarities among the 20 monopodial orchid hybrids. The overall similarity coefficients ranged from 0.40 to 0.84. Cluster analysis revealed that at 0.69 similarity coefficient, the 20 monopodial orchid hybrids got divided into six groups. Among the 20 hybrids, H-18, H-7, H-13, H-17, H-19 and H-20 stood separately in clusters II, III A, III B, IV, V and cluster VI respectively. This substantiates the moderately broad distribution of genetic variability, which can be attributed to the broad genetic base in their ancestry. Cluster I A contained four hybrids viz., H-1, H-10, H-3 and H-9. This grouping is justified by the presence of a common parent i.e., Arachnis Maggie Oei Red Ribbon in their parentage. Moreover, two common species viz., Arachnis hookeriana and Arachnis flos-aeris are involved in their ancestry. All these support their belonging to the same cluster. The three hybrids such as H-5, H-6 and H-8 fell in cluster I B. RAPD technique is relatively simpler, quicker, less expensive and non-radioactive than other molecular characterization techniques. The results of present investigation proved that it can detect sufficient polymorphisms in genetic distance studies in monopodial orchids. A research programme entitled “Intra and inter generic hybridization and molecular characterization in monopodial orchids” was carried out in the Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, College of Agriculture, Vellayani during 2005-2008 with the objective of undertaking intra and intergeneric hybridization, in vitro embryo culture and molecular characterization in monopodial orchids, as a preliminary step to develop novel hybrids. Fifteen monopodial orchid genotypes comprising of six genera viz., Aranda, Aranthera, Kagawara, Mokara, Renanthera and Vanda, with good cut flower qualities and high demand in the market were selected as parents after initial evaluation. They were evaluated adopting completely randomized design with five replications. Analysis of variance revealed significant differences for almost all the characters studied. Genotypic and phenotypic coefficients of variation were high for thickness of leaf, leaf area and number of aerial roots. High heritability (>70 %) combined with high genetic advance (>70 %) was observed for number of aerial roots, width of leaf, thickness of leaf, leaf area, number of spikes per shoot and number of flowers per inflorescence. Significant positive inter-correlation at genotypic and phenotypic levels was observed for length of flower and width of flower with number of spikes per shoot. The character number of spikes per shoot recorded significant positive correlation with leaf area. Number of flowers per inflorescence was positively correlated with number of leaves per shoot and length of inflorescence. Out of the six genera studied, four viz., Aranda, Aranthera, Kagawara and Mokara, exhibited free-flowering nature. Seasonal flowering was observed mainly from June to December in Vanda, whereas it was confined to two seasons, from February to March and August to October in Renanthera. Inflorescence axis was found to be arching in Aranthera and Renanthera while the rest of the genotypes produced erect inflorescence axis. The 15 parental genotypes were crossed in all possible combinations after preliminary studies on floral biology. A total of 225 cross combinations were attempted including 105 crosses, 105 reciprocals and 15 selfs. Incompatibility reactions were noticed at different stages ranging from flower abscission before the onset of any visible post pollination change to instances where seeds germinated but aborted in culture. Mature green capsules were harvested from 70 combinations at 70 to 90 per cent maturity. Among them 15 combinations did not yield any seeds in the capsule while the remaining 55 combinations were cultured axenically. Among the 55 combinations inoculated in vitro, no germination was obtained from seeds of 12 combinations. Out of the 43 combinations that germinated successfully, seven combinations showed arrested development. Thus out of the total 55 combinations inoculated in vitro 36 combinations developed successfully. These were subcultured three to four times. Seedlings having 2-3 leaves and 2-3 roots were deflasked and planted out. MS half strength was selected as the best basal medium. For improving the in vitro growth of hybrid monopodial orchid seedlings refinement of this medium by supplementing with IAA (8 mg l-1) and NAA (2 mg l-1) was beneficial. Significant differences among the combinations were observed with respect to number of days taken for germination initiation, number of days taken for development of protocorms, chlorophyll, first leaf, first shoot and first root primordia and for deflasking. Significant differences in seedling morphology were observed among the 36 hybrid combinations at deflasking. These were kept in humidity chamber for acclimatization for one month, transferred to net house for hardening and maintained there for further growth. In the present study, RAPD was employed for studying the genetic diversity and for the fingerprinting of 20 monopodial orchid hybrids, making use of arbitrary primers to amplify random DNA sequences in the genome. To identify the promising primers for RAPD analysis, 70 decamer primers of kit A, B, C and D were screened using the DNA of hybrid H-2. Based on the performance in DNA amplification, eight decamer primers were identified for RAPD analysis. Primers that produced highest number of polymorphic bands which were intense and reproducible were selected. They were OPB-07, OPB-15, OPB-l7, OPC-04, OPC-05, OPC-08, OPC-15 and OPD-02. a total of 57 scorable bands (average of 7.125 bands per primer) were generated by the selected eight primers of which six were monomorphic and the remaining 51 were polymorphic (89.47%). The estimation of Jaccard’s coefficients and construction of dendrogram by using UPGMA revealed the presence and extent of genetic similarities among the 20 monopodial orchid hybrids. The overall similarity coefficients ranged from 0.40 to 0.84. Cluster analysis revealed that at 0.69 similarity coefficient, the 20 monopodial orchid hybrids got divided into six groups. Among the 20 hybrids, H-18, H-7, H-13, H-17, H-19 and H-20 stood separately in clusters II, III A, III B, IV, V and cluster VI respectively. This substantiates the moderately broad distribution of genetic variability, which can be attributed to the broad genetic base in their ancestry. Cluster I A contained four hybrids viz., H-1, H-10, H-3 and H-9. This grouping is justified by the presence of a common parent i.e., Arachnis Maggie Oei Red Ribbon in their parentage. Moreover, two common species viz., Arachnis hookeriana and Arachnis flos-aeris are involved in their ancestry. All these support their belonging to the same cluster. The three hybrids such as H-5, H-6 and H-8 fell in cluster I B. RAPD technique is relatively simpler, quicker, less expensive and non-radioactive than other molecular characterization techniques. The results of present investigation proved that it can detect sufficient polymorphisms in genetic distance studies in monopodial orchids.ThesisItem Open Access Concurrent growing of green manure crops in dry and wet seeded rice(Department of Agronomy, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2008) Anitha, S; KAU; Jose, MathewAn investigation entitled ‘Concurrent growing of green manure crops in dry and wet seeded rice’ was conducted at Agricultural Research Station, Mannuthy to develop a comprehensive technology package for the system of concurrent growing of green manure crops in direct seeded rice. The investigation consisted of four experiments viz., Experiment Ia - Concurrent growing of green manure crops in dry seeded rice, Experiment Ib - Residual effect of concurrent growing of green manure crops in dry seeded rice, Experiment IIa - Concurrent growing of daincha in wet seeded rice and Experiment IIb - Residual effect of concurrent growing of daincha in wet seeded rice. The experiment on concurrent growing of green manure crops in dry seeded rice consisted of two green manure crops (horse gram and cowpea), three methods of incorporation (Incorporation by cono weeder, desiccation by 2,4 - D spray @1.0 kg ha-1 and allowing for self decomposition) and two levels of nitrogen (100 and 75% of recommended N) and a control without green manure crops . Among the two green manure crops, cowpea was the best in supplying the required quantity of green matter with 25 per cent savings of N fertilizer and a substantial reduction in weed incidence. All the three methods of incorporation were found to be equally effective. Hence in places where there is a difficulty in self decomposition, cowpea can be effectively incorporated by conoweeder or by spraying 2, 4-D. The cowpea variety used in this study was a short duration bush type variety facilitating additional pod yield from cowpea before it was incorporated. Concurrent growing of cowpea along with dry seeded rice is a viable system as it resulted in increased productivity, profitability and sustainability dry seeded rice. In the experiment to study the residual effect of concurrent growing of green manure crops in dry seeded rice, the main plots of dry seeded rice crop during the 1st crop season were divided into two sub plots and applied 100 and 75 per cent N to the subplots. The results revealed that concurrent growing of green manure crops were effective in increasing the yield and sustaining soil fertility status compared to pure crop of rice receiving 5 t ha-1 of FYM and 100 per cent of the recommended nitrogen. But there was no savings of N fertilizer to the succeeding transplanted rice crop as the highest yield of succeeding rice was achieved only when it received 100 per cent of the recommended N. The profitability of the rice- rice cropping system was the highest with concurrent growing of cowpea in dry seeded rice. The experiment on concurrent growing of daincha in wet seeded rice consisted of two stages of incorporation of daincha (20 DAS and 30DAS), three methods of incorporation (Incorporation by cono weeder, desiccation by 2, 4 - D spray @1.0kg ha-1 and Desiccation by Chlorimuron ethyl+ met sulfuron methyl spray @ 4.0 g ha-1 met sulfuron methyl spray @ 5 g ha-1) and two levels of nitrogen (100 and 75% of recommended N) and a control without daincha. Results indicated that concurrent growing of daincha can be successfully practiced in wet seeded rice with improved productivity. Incorporation of 30 days old daincha employing any of the three methods of incorporation was equally effective in increasing the productivity and profitability of wet seeded rice. Incorporation of daincha at 30 DAS could add about 14 t ha-1 of green matter with minimum investment and resulted in 70 per cent weed suppression. Concurrent growing of daincha receiving both 100 and 75 per cent of recommended N produced significantly higher yield than pure crop of rice receiving 5 t ha-1 of FYM and 100 per cent of the recommended nitrogen. Hence there was a saving of 25 per cent N without affecting the yield. The highest yield was obtained when 100 per cent of recommended N was applied to the system. The treatments for the experiment to study the residual effect of concurrent growing of daincha in wet seeded rice were similar to that of dry seeded rice. The results showed that concurrent growing of daincha and its incorporation at 30 DAS was effective in increasing the yield of succeeding rice and sustaining soil fertility status compared to pure crop of rice receiving 5 t ha-1 of FYM and 100 per cent of the recommended nitrogen. The highest yield of succeeding rice was achieved only when it received 100 per cent of the recommended N hence there was no savings of N fertilizer to the succeeding transplanted rice crop. Concurrent growing of daincha in wet seeded rice increased the profitability of the rice- rice cropping system. Concurrent growing of green manure crops in dry and wet seeded rice is a management alternative to reduce the production cost and to increase the yield of rice and is a practical model for sustainable rice production.ThesisItem Open Access Comparative efficacy of bromocriptine, cabergoline and thyroxine in inducine oestrus in bitches(Department of Animal Reproduction, Gynaecology and Obstetrics, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 2008) Ajitkumar, G; KAU; Sreekumaran, TDetailed survey on breeding, feeding and management of 1721 dogs belonging to 817 owners was conducted in different parts of Kerala State. Among the dogs surveyed, 518 (30.10%) were male and 1203 (69.90%) were female. Breed-wise details of dogs maintained by individual owners revealed German shepherd dog (20.74%) as the most popular breed of dog followed by Labrador retriever (18.13%), Dachshund (11.39%), Rottweiler (9.12%) and Spitz (5.52%). The percentage of local non-descript dogs was found to be 14.64 only. The prevalence, nature and magnitude of anoestrus among the female dogs were evaluated based on breeding details. Haematological, hormonal, mineral and cholesterol profile of anoestrous bitches were estimated. Data on breeding revealed that 92.93 per cent of bitches were allowed to breed and the remaining 7.07 per cent were kept as virgin throughout their lifetime. The age at first breeding in majority of the bitches (57.85%) was between 1 to 2 years with an average of 16.30 months. The average number of oestrus periods and the number of breeding per year were 2.14 ± 0.24 and 1.47 ± 0.32 respectively. The average duration of proestrual bleeding was found to be 10.87 ± 1.24 days. Most of the bitches (51.97 %) were bred twice in one oestrus and the period of acceptance varied from 4 to 22 days with an average of 8.94 ± 2.18 days. The incidence of failure of conception, abortion, stillbirth and pseudopregnancy were 18.87, 5.72, 15.56 and 13.69 per cent respectively. The neonatal problems encountered in 13.88 per cent of bitches included agalactia / hypogalactia / mammitis (5.29%), cannibalism (2.65%), puppy fading syndrome (2.09%), puerperal tetany (1.98%) and rejection of young one by dam / poor mothering ability (1.87%). Among the bitches surveyed, 134 (11.14%) were identified as in the stage of anoestrus, 65.67 per cent in primary and 34.33 per cent in secondary anoestrus and the average age was 22.68 and 34.34 months respectively. The average duration of secondary anoestrus was 11.71 months. Analysis of breed-wise prevalence revealed that it was high in breeds such as Dachshund (18.18%), Labrador retriever (16.74%), Great Dane (16.67%), Dalmatian (15.38%) and Doberman pinscher (14.00%) and was lowest (2.44%) among local non-descript bitches. Data on body condition revealed that 42 per cent of the anoestrous bitches were with the ideal body score of five, 46 per cent with body score more than five (obese) and 12 per cent with body score less than five (lean). Analysis of haematological profile of anoestrous bitches revealed normochromic normocytic anaemia. The mean serum progesterone, prolactin and thyroxine levels in anoestrous bitches were of 0.57 ± 0.03 ng/ml, 0.75 ± 0.05 ng/ml and 1.80 ± 0.06 µg/dl respectively. The mean serum calcium and phosphorus levels in anoestrous bitches were 8.94 ± 0.24 and 3.48 ± 0.12 mg per cent respectively. The mean serum iron, copper, cobalt, zinc, manganese and cholesterol levels were found to be within the normal range. Oestrus induction trials were carried out in forty anoestrous bitches and the data obtained were compared with that of control bitches. Out of 10 animals treated in each group, five (50%) in Group I (bromocriptine @ 50 μg/kg. body weight), nine (90%) in Group II (cabergoline @ 5 μg/kg. body weight), eight (80%) in Group III (thyroxine @10 μg/kg. body weight) and seven (70%) in Group IV (thyroxine @ 5 μg/kg. body weight) evinced proestrual bleeding. The mean treatment onset to proestrus in Groups I, II, III and IV was 28 ± 3.39, 13.44 ± 3.12, 24.50 ± 3.18 and 33 ± 2.21 days respectively. The average duration of proestrus in the treatment groups was 9.80 ± 0.86, 10.11 ± 0.68, 11.25 ± 0.88 and 10.71 ± 0.68 days respectively as against 9.70 ± 0.42 days in the control group. The average duration of oestrus in the four treatment groups and the control group was 7.60 ± 0.24, 8 ± 0.29, 8.5 ± 0.63, 7.85 ± 0.46 and 8 ± 0.39 days respectively. Fifty per cent of the animals treated with bromocriptine and 10 per cent of the animals treated with cabergoline exhibited nausea and vomiting as side effects, whereas none of the animals treated with thyroxine exhibited side effects. The mean serum progesterone and prolactin levels during anoestrus, on the first day of proestrus and on the day of first breeding did not differ significantly within and between the treatment groups and the control group. The mean serum thyroxine level during anoestrus and on the first day of proestrus did not differ significantly within and between the treatment and the control groups, whereas on the day of first breeding the mean thyroxine level recorded statistically significant difference between the treatment and control groups, the lowest being 1.56 ± 0.18 μg/dl in Group I and the highest being 2.10 ± 0.13 μg/dl in Group IV. Animals treated with levothyroxine (Group III & IV) exhibited a slight increase in the mean level of serum thyroxine on the first day of bleeding as well as on the day of first breeding, but the values were found to be within the normal limits. The haemoglobin level and total erythrocyte count were found to be increased on the first day of proestrus and on the day of first breeding in animals of Group III and IV. The mean serum phosphorus level on the first day of proestrus and on the day of first breeding in the treatment groups were found to continue at low levels as in the anoestrous stage. The mean serum copper level on the first day of proestrus exhibited statistically significant difference between the treatment and control groups. The mean serum level of calcium, iron, cobalt, zinc and manganese during anoestrus, on the first day of proestrus and on the day of first breeding did not reveal statistically significant difference between groups. The overall conception rate in the treatment groups were 40, 70, 50 and 40 per cent respectively as against 70 per cent in the control group. The average gestation length and litter size did not differ significantly between the treatment and control groups.ThesisItem Open Access Agricultural expert system - a participatory assessment(Department of Agricultural extension, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2008) Helen, S; KAU; Kaleel, F M HCyber Extension includes effective use of Information and Communication Technology, national and international information networks, Internet, Expert Systems, Multimedia Learning Systems and Computer based training systems to improve information access to the farmers, extension personnel and scientists. The dissemination of the technologies could be enhanced by using expert systems and other artificial intelligence technologies (Hadi et al., 2006). An expert system is a computer-based program that uses knowledge, facts and different reasoning techniques to solve problems that normally require the abilities of human experts. The expert systems are based on the concept of artificial intelligence in which the experience and knowledge of human experts are captured in the form of IF-THEN rules and facts, to solve the field problems (Rao, 2003). ‘Diagnos-4’, was a computer-assisted software developed by Kerala Agricultural University during 2004. This package would support the agricultural extension workers and literate farmers for decision-making and help them in suggesting suitable control measures of the major pests and diseases of important nine crops of Kerala (Ganesan, 2002). It will be modified and released shortly for the benefit of all the stakeholders involved in agricultural development. Before introducing the system among users, it is appropriate to explore the possibilities of functioning of AES under the existing extension system so that suitable modifications can be made to make it more user friendly. Development of AES, ‘Diagnos-4’ was the pioneering and ambitious programme of Kerala Agricultural University. The personnel involved in technology dissemination and technology users need much information on plant protection measures. Hence ‘Diagnos-4’ was selected purposively. The research was conducted among the prospective users in two phases viz; exploratory design among researchers who were in the research institutes engaged in AES development and in TOT, all over India and experimental design among extension personnel and farmers from Palakkad District of Kerala. Mean scores, percentage analysis, Kendall’s Coefficient of Concordance, t-test for two samples assuming equal variances and Binary Logistic Regression were the statistical tools used in this study. Twenty AES were identified during this study, developed by various agricultural research institutions in India. Many of the systems were restricted only to limited groups of users and they were yet to be popularized among the ultimate users. It was found that extension personnel and farmers possessed low level of knowledge especially in the areas of plant protection aspects of crops and they were in need of information on the same. Hence there is a lot of scope for the application of AES among extension personnel and farmers on plant protection aspects of crops that help the users to clarify their doubts, confirm their knowledge and provide real time information to the technology users. Prospective users in the transfer of technology stream were very much satisfied about the future prospects of AES based on its better performance, settings in the AES, mode of presentation, practicability and serviceability of the system. The areas that needed modifications were: retrievability of information, relevancy of information and information content. Release of Malayalam Version with more emphasis on easy retrievability of information, needs the immediate attention of the researchers. All the categories of respondents perceived that AES had got ‘more potential’ in the transfer of technology in terms of disseminating information to the users. The combination of AES and human expertise showed better performance and higher Information Efficiency Index (IEI) among the extension personnel and farmers. Majority of the extension personnel rated AES with high IEI. Whereas majority of the farmers rated AES with low IEI. Extension personnel and farmers assessed that the overall percentage of solution offered by AES in the plant protection of rice, coconut and banana was almost on par with the solutions given by human experts and in combination, it served better. It is better to introduce the AES designed separately for extension personnel and farmers. It is also necessary to release the software among the prospective users after a comprehensive orientation in using the AES. Maximum potential of AES can be explored by making the users as the partners in the AES development process to ensure user friendliness of Agricultural Expert System.ThesisItem Open Access Phytase supplementation on the availability of different minerals and their interactions in pigs(Department of Animal Nutrition, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 2009) Shyama, K; KAU; Mercy, A DTwo feeding experiments were conducted using 100 weaned piglets to study the effect of dietary supplementation of calcium, phosphorus and phytase in different levels and their interactions on growth, nutrient digestibility, mineral availability and blood and bone mineral profile. In experiment one, sixty four weaned Large White Yorkshire x Desi piglets (32 castrated male and 32 female) belonging to the Centre for Pig Production and Research, Mannuthy were used as experimental animals. All animals were dewormed before the start of the experiment. The piglets were divided into eight groups as uniformly as possible with regard to age, sex and weight. Piglets of each group were allotted randomly into four pens with two piglets in each pen. Piglets in each replicate were maintained under identical management conditions throughout the experimental period of 88 days. Restricted feeding was followed throughout the experimental period and daily feed intake was recorded. Clean drinking water was provided ad libitum in all the pens throughout the experimental period. The animals were fed with standard grower ration with 18 per cent CP and 3200 kcal of ME/kg of feed up to 50 kg body weight and finisher ration with 16 per cent CP and 3200 kcal of ME /kg of feed from 50 kg body weight. Eight dietary treatments with two levels of calcium (0.6 and 1 per cent) and two levels of phosphorus (0.3 and 0.6 per cent) were used with phytase (750 units /kg) and without phytase in a 2x2x2 factorial completely randomized design. The pigs were weighed at the beginning of the experiment and later on at fortnightly intervals. Blood samples were collected at the beginning and on 85th day of the experiment and a digestibility trial was conducted at the end of the experiment to determine the digestibility of nutrients and percentage availability of minerals of the experimental diets by total collection method. The results of the first experiment indicated that the levels of Ca, P and phytase had no effect on average daily gain, feed efficiency and DM intake among pigs reared under the eight dietary treatments, while there was significant interaction between Ca x P (P<0.05) and Ca x phytase (P<0.01) on DM intake. The level of Ca and P and Ca x P x phytase interactions were significant for DM digestibility which resulted in lower DM digestibility for rations T3, T5 and T7 than that of other rations. Dietary levels of P and interaction between Ca x P (P<0.01) and Ca x phytase (P<0.05) were significant for EE digestibility. Hence rations T7 and T8 had lower (P<0.01) EE digestibility than the rest of the experimental rations. Crude fibre digestibility was affected by phytase and P x phytase interaction. Calcium availability was higher (P<0.01) in all phytase supplemented rations. Significant interactions between dietary Ca x phytase (P<0.01) and dietary P x phytase (P<0.05) were observed for Ca availability. Interactions between dietary levels of Ca x P (P<0.05) and Ca x phytase (P< 0.05) were found significant for availability of Cu and Mn respectively. Data on blood samples collected on 85th day revealed that phytase supplementation had significant effect (P< 0.01) on the plasma Ca levels of the animals fed the eight dietary treatments. The interaction between dietary Ca x P levels was also found significant (P< 0.01) for plasma Ca. Dietary levels of both Ca (P< 0.01) and P and interaction between Ca x P (P< 0.01), Ca x phytase and P x phytase (P<0.01) were found to affect plasma P significantly. In case of plasma Zn dietary Ca was having significant (P< 0.01) effect and the interactions between dietary Ca x P (P<0.01), Ca x phytase (P<0.05) and P x phytase (P<0.01) were also found significant. Dietary Ca, P and phytase levels had significant (P<0.05) effect on the plasma ALP activity. Cost of feed per kg body weight gain of pigs was lowest for ration T1. Ration T1 with low Ca, low P and without phytase gave similar growth and feed efficiency with lowest cost of production compared to the other rations and thus T1 was taken as the control ration for the second experiment. The second feeding experiment was conducted for 114 days using 36 weaned Large White Yorkshire x Desi weaned piglets (18 castrated males and 18 females) belonging to the Centre for Pig Production and Research, Mannuthy and the animals were randomly allotted to the three dietary treatments, T1- Control ration containing 0.6 per cent calcium and 0.3 per cent phosphorus, T2 -Control ration without any mineral supplements and with 750 units of phytase/kg feed and T3 - Control ration without phytase and mineral supplementation. A digestibility experiment was conducted to determine the digestibility of nutrients and availability of minerals. Blood samples were collected before the start of the experiment and on 16th week. Radiological examination of femur and mandibles of the representative animals of three groups at the end of the study were done. All the male animals were slaughtered on attaining slaughter weight of 70 kg and the data on dressing percentage, loin eye area, back fat thickness, weight of internal organs were collected. Photograph of rib bone was taken during slaughter and bone ash percentage, bone calcium and bone phosphorus were estimated. Kidney samples were examined histologically to assess pathological changes, if any, due to the experimental rations. Body weight of pigs belonging to T2 (phytase supplemented ration) was significantly higher (P<0.05) than that of T3 in fortnights 4, 6, 7, 8 and 9, while the difference between that of T1 and T2 were non significant in all the fortnights. There was no difference in feed efficiency and digestibility of nutrients among pigs reared under the three dietary treatments. The availability of Ca, P and Mn for T2 ration was higher than that of the control ration while the Mg availability was lower for T2 and T3 than that of T1. Zinc availability was lower for T3 than that of T1 ration. Dressing percentage was lower (P<0.01) for T2 and T3 than that of control and loin eye area was lower (P<0.05) for T3 than that of T1 and T2. There was no gross abnormality of femur and mandible on x-ray examination of pigs reared on three experimental rations. Histopathological examinations of kidney samples also were normal for pigs of T1 and T2 and T3. However ricketty beads were seen on ends of ribs on carcass evaluation, in pigs reared under T3. The bone ash content was also lower (P<0.01) for animals fed ration T3 than that of T1 and T2. Thus feeding ration without any mineral supplementation showed deleterious effects on growth, mineral availability and bone ash content, but supplementation of phytase improved utilization of nutrients and minerals than that of T3 during the period of 114 days of the experiment. Feed cost /kg gain of T1 pigs was higher than that of T2 (P< 0.01) and T3 (P< 0.05). But the difference in the cost of production between T2 and T3 were non significant (P>0.05). It can be concluded that phytase supplementation of rations resulted in decreased feed cost / kg gain.ThesisItem Open Access Development of protocol for quality control of commercial organic manures and their evaluation(Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2008) Gowri Priya; KAU; Harikrishnan Nair, KThe research project entitled “Development of protocol for quality control of commercial organic manures and their evaluation” was conducted at College of Agriculture, Vellayani during 2006-2008, with the objectives of quality evaluation of the major commercial organic manures in Kerala, development of a quality protocol for assessing quality and detecting adulteration in commercial organic manures, studying the mineralization pattern of major nutrients in selected manures and their comparative effect on crop performance. Forty four commercial organic manure products and their raw materials were collected from the manufacturers allover Kerala and their physical, chemical and biochemical characters were analysed. Standard compost manures viz., standard vermicompost, standard coirpith compost and standard city waste compost were prepared at the Instructional Farm, College of Agriculture, Vellayani and their physical, chemical and biochemical characters were analysed. The raw materials viz. bone meal, leather meal and neem cake were mixed in different proportions and the characters of the resulting organic meal mixtures were estimated. Based on these data, a protocol was developed to predict the nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium contents of the organic manures prepared by mixing bone meal, leather meal and neem cake in any ratio. A storage experiment was conducted to study the changes in quality aspects of organic manures during a period of one year. The quality parameters of market samples and the corresponding factory samples of COMs were compared. An incubation experiment was conducted to study the nutrient mineralization pattern of organic manures. A field experiment was carried out to evaluate the performance of selected organic manures using amaranthus variety Arun as test crop. The results of the investigation revealed that none among the forty four commercial organic manures conformed completely to the quality standards specified by the Fertilizer (Control) Amendment Order, 2006, of the Government of India. The colour of COMs varied depending on their raw materials (ingredients) and the odour of COMs varied depending on raw materials and the state of decomposition. The total nitrogen contents of COMs varied from 0.7 per cent to 7.87 per cent. Majority of the COMs had total nitrogen contents between 2.8 per cent and 5.85 per cent. The C/N ratio of COMs varied from 2.86 to 43.18 and only one product viz. SN 4 (Neem cake marketed by TIFFCO Fertilizers & Chemicals) had a ratio more than 20:1. All the COMs contained satisfactory level of total organic carbon. The total phosphorus content varied from 0.12 per cent to 4.57 per cent and the total potassium content in COMs varied from 0.12 per cent to 7.87 per cent. Only eighteen of the COMs had pH in the neutral range and with respect to EC, only three COMs were good for use having EC values less than 4 dS m-1. Based on heavy metal contents, the COMs P.L.meal (PL Agro Technologies Ltd.), Skymeal (Vembanad Chemicals & Fertilizers) and Haritha Super (The Gramakarshaka Fertilizer Company Pvt Ltd.) were found unsuitable for long term application to soil. The standard compost manures did not conform to the specifications of moisture content and bulk density as per Fertilizer (Control) Amendment Order, 2006. The total nitrogen content of SVC was 1.4 per cent, SCC 0.7 per cent and SCWC 2.1 per cent. All the three SCMs recorded C/N ratios below 20. SVC and SCWC had satisfactory levels of total P while SCC was poor in total P. The three SCMs did not contain enough total K to conform to the minimum limit prescribed by the Fertilizer (Control) Amendment Order, 2006. The pH of SVC and SCWC were within the neutral range of 6.5- 7.5, while SCC was more acidic with pH of 3.93. The electrical conductivity of the SCMs ranged from 0.33 to 3.4dS m-1. The total organic carbon contents of SCMs were above 30 per cent. SCMs had heavy metal contents below the maximum limits prescribed by the Fertilizer (Control) Amendment Order, 2006. The analysis of raw materials revealed that leather meal was a good source of nitrogen, bone meal and pressmud were good sources of phosphorus and pressmud was the best source for potassium. The mathematical models developed for predicting the N, P and K contents of any mixture of bone meal, leather meal and neem cake were: N estimated= 3.62088 BM+ 6.58962 LM+ 1.74407 NC+ 4.74391 (BM)x(LM) + 7.8398 (BM) x (NC) – 9.87862 (LM)x(NC), where BM is the proportion of bone meal in the mixture, LM is the proportion of leather meal in the manure and NC is the proportion of neem cake in the mixture. P estimated= 8.41214 BM+ 0.37157 LM+ 0.41953 NC- 2.73548 (BM) x (LM) + 10.15749 (BM) x (NC) – 8.72905 (LM) x (NC) K estimated= 0.38543 BM+ 0.01872 LM+ 1.19747 NC+ -0.04393 (BM) x (LM) + 2.98573 (BM) x (NC) – 5.64704 (LM) x (NC) The model could be used for finding out adulteration of organic manures with inorganic fertilizers to boost their nutrient contents. Different ratios of bone meal, leather meal and neem cake were worked out to prepare organic manures with different levels of N, P and K. The results of the storage study showed that the organic carbon content of organic manures decreased from the initial value during the storage period of one year. The changes in nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and sodium contents of organic manures showed varying patterns during storage. Comparison of quality of market and factory samples of COMs revealed that the organic carbon and nitrogen content of all the market samples were significantly less than their corresponding factory samples while P and K contents showed varying patterns. The mineralization patterns of major nutrients from the organic manures in incubation experiment indicated that in general, the available nitrogen and phosphorus contents in soils treated with organic manures increased upto 30-45days after incubation and decreased thereafter. The mineralization pattern of potassium from organic manures in soil showed pronounced variation. The treatment with Karshaka Agromeal Grade I (SN 26) recorded higher contents of N, P and K. In the field experiment the highest yield in the first crop was in the treatment with NPK fertilizers + Karshaka Agromeal Grade I. The control treatment with no fertilizers and manures recorded the lowest yield. The application of organic manures was found to improve the quality aspects of the crop. The highest content of available N in soil after harvest of first crop was recorded in T10 (NPK fertilizers + SVC) and lowest available N content was observed in T4. The available phosphorus content after harvest of first crop was highest in T7 (NPK fertilizers + Golden meal) and the lowest value of available P2O5 was observed in T6 (NPK fertilizers +Skymeal). The available potassium content after harvest of first crop was highest in T10 and the lowest content of available potassium was obtained from T14. Application of organic manures was found to raise the pH of the soil in treatment plots. The electrical conductivity of soil was significantly influenced by the different treatments. The highest yield, total dry matter production, total marketable yield and total yield per plant of the second crop was recorded in T7 (NPK fertilizers +Golden meal) and the lowest was in T14. The highest B: C ratio of 1.31 was recorded in T4 and the lowest value was recorded in T14 (absolute control) which had a B:C ratio of 0.90.
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