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Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur
The history of agricultural education in Kerala can be traced back to the year 1896 when a scheme was evolved in the erstwhile Travancore State to train a few young men in scientific agriculture at the Demonstration Farm, Karamana, Thiruvananthapuram, presently, the Cropping Systems Research Centre under Kerala Agricultural University. Agriculture was introduced as an optional subject in the middle school classes in the State in 1922 when an Agricultural Middle School was started at Aluva, Ernakulam District. The popularity and usefulness of this school led to the starting of similar institutions at Kottarakkara and Konni in 1928 and 1931 respectively.
Agriculture was later introduced as an optional subject for Intermediate Course in 1953. In 1955, the erstwhile Government of Travancore-Cochin started the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, Thiruvananthapuram and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences at Mannuthy, Thrissur for imparting higher education in agricultural and veterinary sciences, respectively. These institutions were brought under the direct administrative control of the Department of Agriculture and the Department of Animal Husbandry, respectively. With the formation of Kerala State in 1956, these two colleges were affiliated to the University of Kerala. The post-graduate programmes leading to M.Sc. (Ag), M.V.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees were started in 1961, 1962 and 1965 respectively.
On the recommendation of the Second National Education Commission (1964-66) headed by Dr. D.S. Kothari, the then Chairman of the University Grants Commission, one Agricultural University in each State was established. The State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) were established in India as an integral part of the National Agricultural Research System to give the much needed impetus to Agriculture Education and Research in the Country. As a result the Kerala Agricultural University (KAU) was established on 24th February 1971 by virtue of the Act 33 of 1971 and started functioning on 1st February 1972. The Kerala Agricultural University is the 15th in the series of the SAUs.
In accordance with the provisions of KAU Act of 1971, the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, were brought under the Kerala Agricultural University. In addition, twenty one agricultural and animal husbandry research stations were also transferred to the KAU for taking up research and extension programmes on various crops, animals, birds, etc.
During 2011, Kerala Agricultural University was trifurcated into Kerala Veterinary and Animal Sciences University (KVASU), Kerala University of Fisheries and Ocean Studies (KUFOS) and Kerala Agricultural University (KAU).
Now the University has seven colleges (four Agriculture, one Agricultural Engineering, one Forestry, one Co-operation Banking & Management), six RARSs, seven KVKs, 15 Research Stations and 16 Research and Extension Units under the faculties of Agriculture, Agricultural Engineering and Forestry. In addition, one Academy on Climate Change Adaptation and one Institute of Agricultural Technology offering M.Sc. (Integrated) Climate Change Adaptation and Diploma in Agricultural Sciences respectively are also functioning in Kerala Agricultural University.
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ThesisItem Open Access Influence of particle size of feed and plane of feeding on growth,physiological reactions and carcass characteristics of growing-finishing pigs(Department of Livestock and Production Management, College of Veterinary and Animal sciences, Hissar, 1981) Kurien, Thomas; KAU; Singh, R AThirtysix Large White Yorkshire barrows averaging 70 days of age and 11.2 kg weight were assigned at random to six dietary treatments in order to study the influence of feed particle size and level of digestible energy on the performance, physiological reactions and carcass characteristics. They were individually housed and maintained on diets compounded mainly of dried sardines, dried tapioca, groundnut cake and rice bran till they were 8 months of age. The barrows were provided with the experimental diets having 100%, 90% or 85% of NRC standards of DE with feed particle size of less than one or two to three millimeter. It was observed that variations in feed particle size did not produce any significant effect on growth, physiological reactions and carcass characteristics of pigs under any of the treatments. At 8 months of age, the pigs under treatments 1 and 4 (100% DE of NRC; 2 and 5 (90% DE of NRC) and 3 and 6 (85% DE of NRC) had, (i) a final weight of 102.9; 99.4; 86.8; 92.3; 67.1 and 67.2; (ii) an average daily gain of 0.545; 0.524; 0.448; 0.473; 0.329 and 0.326 kg, and (iii) feed conversion ratio of 3.4; 3.5; 4.3; 4.2; 5.6 and 5.4, respectively. The pigs under treatments 1 and 4 reached 70 kg weight at an age of 197.5 days on an average, while pigs under treatments 2 and 5 reached the same weight by 208.5 days, and under 3 and 6 by 228 days. The digestibility of dry matter, organic matter, ether extract and crude carbohydrate in pigs under all the treatments was significantly (p <0.01) lower with decreasing levels of DE at 5 and 7 months of age. Although the digestibility of crude protein was significantly higher (p <0.01) in pigs that received 100% DE of NRC than 85% at 5 and 7 months of age, it was statistically of the same order with that of 90% at 5 months of age. Dietary treatments had no significant effect on the rectal temperature, heart rate, respiration rate and haemoglobin concentration of blood of the experimental pigs. The yield of dressed carcass was decreased from 72.3% to 68.8% or 64.7% with the decreasing body weight of pigs on 100%, 90% or 85% DE of NRC standards, respectively. The yield of ham was increased from 21.3% to 22.5% or 23.5% with the decreasing levels of DE, respectively. The length of carcass, eye muscle area and overall backfat thickness were significantly (p <0.01) lower as the level of DE was decreased. The fat percentage in dried eye muscle was almost uniform (22.3 to 24.9%) in pigs under different dietary treatments. The quality score for marbling, colour and firmness was significantly (p <0.01) in favour of diets that contained higher of DE. The feed cost per kg body weight gain of pigs under different dietary treatments or total cost of feed and labour at market weight of 70, 80 and 90 kg were determined. The cost of raising pigs from weaning to these weights on rations containing 90% DE of NRC standards and two to three millimeter feed particle size was found to be most economic. An equation W = 5.16 + LG2/11568 was evolved predicting live weight of barrows ranging from 8 to 144 kg, where W, is the weight in kg, L, is the length of body in cm, and G, is the girth in cm.ThesisItem Open Access Effect of environmental heat stress on performance of crossbred dairy cattle(Department of Livestock Production Management, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 1989) Thiagarajan, M; KAU; Thomas, C KAmple evidences are available on the poor performance of livestock inhabiting the tropical regions of the world, compared to their counterparts in the temperate zones. By and large, the management practises adapted in the warmer areas are to be quite different from cooler regions to reach optimum productivity. Among the management practises, housing and feeding aspect needs to be given more emphasis in bringing about the much desired results to meet the ever increasing demand for livestock products. In the present work, an attempt has been made to investigate the effects of housing and feeding inter alia. On the growth and production of B. Taurus x B. indicus crossbred cattle. Besides these, some of the important climatic components, such as solar radiation, mean radiation, temperature of the surrounding and the wind velocity, the factors which have hither to been widely neglected, were tried to be methodically quantified and presented in relation to their direct effect on the physiological and productive responses of cattle. To assess the effect of shelter and the type of ration on the physiological responses and growth performance of crossbred cattle, an experiment involving 20 weaned heifer calves, was conducted at the University Livestock Farm (KAU), Mannuthy. The experiment included four treatments encompassing protection and exposure to solar radiation, and concentrate and roughage – oriented feeding in different combinations. The selected calves were distributed equally to the four treatments, observing the standard statistical procedures. Physiological variables like cardiac rate, respiration rate, rectal temperature and skin temperature were measured and recorded for all the calves twice a day on a fixed day in a week and for 14 weeks of the study by using standard equipments and procedures. The body weights and body measurements were recorded once in a fortnight at a fixed time in a day. The body measurements included height, length and girth. All the measurements were made on individual calves. The climatic data, atmospheric temperature, relative humidity, wind velocity, black globe temperature and vapour pressure were recorded inside the shed and atmospheric temperature, solar radiation, relative humidity, wind velocity, vapour pressure and rainfall were recorded in the open paddock. A continuous recording “Solar Radiation Balance Meter” was used to record the solar radiation continuously throughout the experiment. The average daily maximum air temperature that prevailed in the unshaded location during the hot – dry period was 350 C and in the shaded location, 300 C. During the rainy period the maximum temperature ranged from 25.37 to 29.310 C under the shade and 29.36 to 33.500 C in the unshaded location. The relative humidity ranged from 76 to 93 per cent in the mornings and 55 to 88 per cent in the afternoons. The wind velocity ranged from 0.13 to 0.97 m per sec in the unshaded area and almost zero in the shaded area. The vapour pressure ranged from 21.41 to 25.98 mm of Hg. The rectal temperature of the calves in the unshaded location was significantly higher than those of the shaded ones (P < 0.01) during the hot – dry period. Significantly lower value for rectal temperature was obtained for the concentrate – fed unshaded calves during the morning recording of rainy period and higher values were obtained in the afternoons indicating a diurnal rhythm. The skin temperature of the calves was always higher than the rectal temperature in all the cases except in the shaded calves on rainy days. During the hot – dry period, the respiration rates were significantly higher (P < 0.01) in the unshaded group compared to the shaded lot for the morning recordings and in the afternoons, in all the treatments, it was almost double of what was recorded in the mornings. In general, the cardiac rates were found to be higher in the afternoons, than the mornings and lower during the rainy period. Highly significant variations (P < 0.01) in all the physiological reactions measured were noticed between the housed and unhoused treatments, the calves exposed to direct solar radiation recording higher values of rectal and skin temperature and respiration and cardiac rates, with few exceptions. The higher physiological reactions of the calves in the open could be attributed to higher effective temperature caused by direct solar radiation. The analysis of growth parameters indicated significant differences in certain fortnights only. It was observed that maximum gains in live weight, height and girth were obtained by the calves exposed to solar radiation and fed roughage – oriented ration but the gain in length was the least in this group. The next best was the housed and concentrate oriented feeding group which had the highest gain in length, second highest gains in live weight and girth, but the lowest gain in height which implies that under housed conditions concentrate – oriented feeding and under exposed conditions roughage – oriented feeding favour better growth. In general, it was observed that housing in open conditions increased physiological reactions significantly but these increases were not physiologically meaningful to cause retardation in growth. With a view to study the effects of housing on cows with respect to milk production and other traits, eight cows were subjected to a switch over trial in which sheltered and unsheltered conditions alternated. The experiment ran for eight periods of one month each and in total, milk production for 33 weeks were partitioned into 15 weeks of early lactation and the remaining 18 weeks of late lactation periods. The cows were divided into two groups based on their milk yield. The cows of one of the groups at random were kept in an open paddock exposed to direct solar radiation while cows of the other group were housed in a tile – roofed shed. At the end of every month the groups were interchanged. For feeding the cows, adequate measures were taken to meet both maintenance and production requirement and requirements were worked out every fortnight. The physiological variables like the cardiac rate, respiration rate, rectal temperature and skin temperature of the individual cows were measured and recorded twice in a day, two days in a week, by following standard procedures. The twice daily milk yields of the cows were measured by individually weighing the quantity in kg at each milking. Milk fat and protein were estimated from samples collected with due precautions at every milking. The feed, grass and water consumption were measured for individual cows. Standard statistical methods were employed to analyse the data. Multiple regression analysis was resorted to find out the relationship of climatic variables with physiological responses. Highly significant (P < 0.01) differences were found between the shaded and unshaded locations in the relative humidity levels. This may probably be due to accumulation of moisture in the atmosphere inside the animal house resulting out of interference with free exchange of air by housing arrangements. Analysis also revealed highly significant (P < 0.01) difference in wind velocities between locations. The wind velocities recorded in the present experiment generally were lower than what had been suggested as ideal for tropical animal husbandry. The analysis of climatic factors revealed that the animals housed in the shaded location were under additional stress due to radiated heat from the surroundings apart from experiencing stress of the high air temperature. The same phenomenon was observed in the unshaded location also. Both the day and night total radiation values remained high. The rainfall distribution was not uniform during the period of study. In the early lactation period, the cardiac rates, respiration rates, rectal temperature and skin temperature of cows under exposed condition were high in the afternoons. Similar trend was observed in the late lactation period also. In both the treatment groups, all the physiological parameters recorded were on the higher side than the normally accepted standards. The cows had the physiological ability to bring the skin temperature on par with rectal temperature and sometimes even higher than that. The cows in the open seem to compensate during the night and bring down their body temperature to the level of sheltered and eat as much or more of grass and feed. This resulted in similar milk yield in late lactation and slightly higher milk yield in early lactation. Under the hot humid conditions, the higher wind velocity in the open seem to favour the cows considerably. The generally held view that under hot humid conditions ventilation is most important and animals do not need much elaborate housing gets further strengthened from these findings. It was observed that the fat percentages varied significantly (P <0.01) between treatments from both morning and afternoon milk obtained from the cows, the milk fat content being lower when they were exposed to direct solar radiation. The exposed cows though they had maintained their milk production higher, the milk fat content had dropped. A highly significant (P < 0.01) difference had been found between treatments in protein content of the afternoon milk indicating that exposure of cows to day time stress in the open sun considerably altered milk composition and reduced the protein percentage. During late lactation period, both fat and protein content in milk were lesser for the unshaded treatment but statistically there was no significant difference between treatments. A highly (P < 0.01) significant difference was observed in concentrate feed intake between shaded and unshaded treatments during early lactation and the reverse was observed in the case of grass consumption. The difference in overall mean water consumption under shaded and unshaded condition was highly (P < 0.01) significant, cows remaining in the open paddock drinking 21 to 23 per cent more water. Observations on physiological reactions revealed that the cows in the unsheltered condition made physiological compensations through increased circulatory and respiratory activities and by physical means during the night to bring down the rectal temperature in the morning to normal levels. During the late lactation period, no significant differences were found in the consumption of grass and concentrate feed by the cows between treatments. A highly significant difference (P < 0.01) was found only with water consumption. During the early lactation, the solar radiation was found to exert a negative, significant (P < 0.05) influence on the cardiac rates but the influence by wind velocity was positive and highly significant (P < 0.01). In the same way, the rectal and skin temperatures also were influenced significantly only by the wind velocity, the effect being negative and highly significant (P < 0.01). During the late lactation stage, the physiological parameters studied had not been influenced by the explanatory variables chosen except in the case of respiration rate which was positively and significantly (P < 0.05) influenced by black globe temperatures. The relationships between climatic variables and animal responses were not as intense when they were housed as when they remained exposed. However, the black globe thermometer readings which represented the combined influence of ambient temperature, wind speed and solar radiation, was found to have significant influence on the respiration rate. This may indicate that the black globe thermometer deserves to be used more extensively for evaluating thermal characters of animal environments. The results of the study clearly indicate the beneficial effects of ‘open – air’ conditions in a hot – humid tropical environment. Factors such as comfort of men tending animals and hygiene preclude cattle keeping without housing structures. The result of these experiments however point to the advisability of loose housing system in which cattle have continuous access to an open paddock shaded by trees. The sheltered area of the loose houses also should be simple roofs on pillars allowing maximum ventilation and air movement. It was also found that growing heifers can be maintained equally well on a roughage – oriented feeding schedule.ThesisItem Open Access Morphometry and ageing of captive male asian elephants (Elephas maximus)(Department of Livestock Production Management, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 2003) Sasikumar, M; KAU; Francis, XavierThe collection of morphometric details from elephants of different age groups would enhance our biological understanding and management of this valuable species.. A total of fifty two clinically healthy captive male Asian elephants, varying in age, under excellent management, maintained by 'Guruvayoor Devaswom Board' were utilized for predicting body weight and height from body measurements as well as determination of age from physical features. For prediction equations several morphometric parameters were measured. All possible linear regressions of weight on one, two, three and four body measurements were calculated. The equations having highest coefficient determination value (R2) with least standard error of estimation was taken for predicting body weight and height in elephants. The data were also divided into age groups (Group I (Young ones; 0-20 years), Group 11 (Sub adults; 21-30 years), Group III (Adults; 31-40 years), and Group IV (0 Id adults; 41-70 years)) and all possible linear regressions were calculated for each group. The best prediction of body weight (kg) for all age groups (G I to G IV) was obtained based on two parameters; the chest girth (cm) and right forefoot circumference (cm). Single and also the combination of various parameters were used for the prediction' of body weight in different age groups. An equation to predict the height at the shoulders (cm) from right forefoot circumference (cm) for various age groups of elephants was also derived. Various parameters were correlated with age of the elephants and average values of these parameters were salculated for age approximation. The data were again divided into various age groups (Group A (Young ones; 0-20 years), Group B (Adults; 21-40 years), and Group C (Old adults; 41- 70 years)) and comparison of parameters between two age groups was done. The parameters such as depigmentation on the trunk, hair distribution, hollow on the temple region, width of the ear, circumference of tusk base and middle, and height at the shoulders had high correlation as well as significant difference in various age group comparisons. So, these parameters could be useful for age estimation in male elephants with more precision.ThesisItem Open Access Shelf life of irradiated rabbit meat underaerobic and vacuum packaging(Department of Livestock Products Technology, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 2009) Sonika, S; KAU; Kuttinarayanan, PPrevention of Food Adulteration Act (1954) as amended in 1998 has permitted irradiation at a dose rate of 2.5 to 4.5 kGy to control pathogenic microorganisms and to extend the shelf life of meat and meat products including poultry products. A study was conducted to evaluate the shelf life of irradiated rabbit meat under aerobic and vacuum packaging. The rabbit meat was prepared by slaughtering locally purchased rabbits under hygienic conditions and was packed in HDPE and PAPE packages at a rate of 120 g each. Half of the packets of aerobic and vacuum packaged samples were subjected to gamma radiation at 2.5 kGy at melting ice temperature and kept immediately at chiller temperature (1 to 4oC) and domestic refrigerator freezer (-6 to -8oC). Samples were analyzed for physical, physicochemical, microbiological, and organoleptic qualities on the day of preparation and on days 3, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, 45, 50, 60, and 70 of storage or until spoilage, whichever was earlier. The samples were also analyzed for proximate composition on the day of preparation. The dressing percentage of the rabbits subjected to the study was 49.35 per cent. The keeping quality of the rabbit meat was 15 to 18, 17 to 19, 5 to 7 and 7 to 9 days in HDPE IR, PAPE IR, HDPE NR and PAPE NR respectively at chiller temperature. In freezer temperature it was significantly (P < 0.05) increased to 45 to 47, 47 to 49, 25 to 27 and 27 to 29 days in HDPE IR, PAPE IR, HDPE NR and PAPE NR respectively. Irradiation or packaging did not significantly (P < 0.05) affect fat, protein and ash composition but higher moisture percentage was observed in irradiated samples. Swelling of the collagen fibres was noticed in irradiated samples on histological examination. The physicochemical parameter, pH of irradiated and non-irradiated samples varied significantly (P < 0.05) on the day of preparation. On storage the pH values decreased uniformly. The WHC was significantly (P < 0.05) reduced in irradiated samples. The ability of the rabbit meat to retain its water decreased gradually on storage and a reduction of about 40 per cent could be noticed from the initial level. Drip loss was not significantly (P < 0.05) different on the day of preparation. Irradiation had a significant (P < 0.05) effect in enhancing the cooking loss whereas packaging had little effect. Both drip loss and cooking loss was increased significantly (P < 0.05) due to storage under chiller and freezer temperature. Irradiation had a significant (P < 0.05) role in increasing the TBARS value of rabbit meat. As the days of storage enhanced, the TBARS values were increased. Irradiation had a significant (P < 0.05) effect in reducing the TV in both type of packaging. As storage period enhanced, TV increased with significant (P < 0.05) changes among treatments. Irradiation had a beneficial effect on microbiological qualities of rabbit meat. There was a significant (P < 0.05) reduction of nearly three log in APC of irradiated meat from that of control. The irradiation of the samples both in HDPE and PAPE packaging significantly (P < 0.05) reduced the PC of meat on the day of preparation where as storage had significant (P < 0.05) effect in enhancing the microbial load of meat. The colour score was non-significantly (P < 0.05) higher in irradiated samples. The juiciness, tenderness and overall acceptability scores were improved significantly (P < 0.05) due to irradiation, where as flavour score was reduced. The sensory attributes were significantly (P < 0.05) reduced due to storage in all the treatment groups. The keeping quality of rabbit meat was significantly (P < 0.05) increased by irradiation both in chiller and freezer under different packaging. In addition irradiation could effectively control food borne illness by destroying the major pathogenic organism without affecting the sensory and nutritional quality of the product. Considering these advantages it can be recommended that packaging the meat in PAPE packages followed by low dose gamma irradiation and maintaining the cold-chain contribute to extended storage life of rabbit meat.ThesisItem Open Access Village level livestock and poultry production under the industrialization scenario(Department of Livestock Production Management, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 2007) Rajaganapathy, V; KAU; Francis, XavierAn in depth assessment and analysis of two villages, one an industrial area and the other an agrarian hamlet, was taken up. The effect of industrialization and pollution in village level livestock and poultry production and toxic heavy metals content as an indicator of pollution in water, soil, fodder and in biological samples were studied. Based on the observation and scientific validations, changes in livestock farming system and methodologies to alleviate the extent of pollution were sorted out. This study was conducted in Plachimada village - industrial area - in Perumatty Panchayat and in Nallepilly village- control area in Nallepilly Panchayat in Chittoor taluk in Palakkad district. A detailed survey of the existing husbandry systems was done in the selected study area using a schedule. Collection of samples of water, soil, fodder and biological samples milk, meat, egg, blood and dung samples were collected and examined from both industrial and control area. The samples were analyzed for presence of heavy metals like copper, cadmium, lead and arsenic by using Atomic absorption spectrophotometer. A detailed survey was done among fifty farmers from the Plachimada (industrial area) and Nallepilly (control area) villages respectively. The farmers were interviewed with a schedule and the data was obtained. The socio-economic status of the farmers indicated that the middle aged persons were more involved in the agricultural and animal husbandry activities. Most of the farmers had an average monthly income per family of Rs. 2000 in the study area. Cultivation of crops and plantations were less in both industrial and control area. The study revealed that majority of the farmers possessed dairy cattle with major source of income from livestock farming in both these study areas. Economic viability of rearing cattle was better in control area than that of industrial area. Most of the farmers surveyed stayed very near to the industry in the industrial zone. The study revealed that nearness of the industry to the grazing lands may be affecting their livestock farming system. The presence of heavy metals cadmium and lead in drinking water and soil samples of industrial area was more than that of the control zone and the WHO (1995) recommendations. The presence of copper and cadmium in meat samples was higher whereas cadmium and lead in blood samples of the industrial area was found more than that of the control zone and the permitted levels as per the WHO recommendations. The level of copper, cadmium and lead in fodder, milk, egg and dung samples of the industrial area was found more than that of the control zone and the permitted levels as per the WHO recommendations. This study aimed also to find out the relationship between water, soil, plant and animal system. Correlation of fodder and blood heavy metals with other biological samples was done in industrial area. Fodder lead showed a highly significant correlation with milk lead content. Correlation between fodder arsenic and milk arsenic concentration was also significant. Correlation between fodder cadmium with blood cadmium was significant. Correlation was observed between fodder lead with dung lead values. Correlation existed between blood copper with dung copper at a significant level. Similarly correlation of fodder and blood heavy metals with other biological samples was done in control area also. Blood and fodder cadmium was significant and positively correlated. Correlation of fodder lead with milk and dung lead were significant. Fodder arsenic and milk arsenic were significantly correlated. In blood the copper content of milk and dung showed a positive significant correlation. The heavy metals lead, cadmium, arsenic and mercury from industrial pollution are of high environmental concern due to their toxicity even at low concentrations. These metals may persist in the system for several days due to cumulative nature and may cause severe health effects in man and animals. Bioaccumulation of toxic heavy metals, especially lead, cadmium and arsenic in milk, meat and in egg have evoked great concern during the recent years. Heavy metals contaminants may enter the animal system through pollution of air, water, soil, feed polluted by industrial sources. From the present study it was found that the industrial area had contaminated water, soil, and fodder under observation. The heavy metal contamination was from copper, cadmium and lead whereas arsenic was almost within the permissible limits. The biological samples milk, meat, egg, blood and dung collected from the industrial zone were also contaminated with copper, cadmium and lead when compared with the control area samples. The level of heavy metals in the biological samples of industrial area was above the WHO permissible limits. Arsenic was present within the maximum permissible level in all the biological samples. It is also concluded that industrialization may add pollutants to the area thereby causing an indirect effect on livestock production systems and in turn to the human beings. The following recommendations may be suggested. 1. Monitoring the level of pollution in water, soil, plants and fodder crops, animals and in man in industrial zones at regular intervals. 2. Treatment of waste water and other discharges/effluents from industries with implementation of strict rules and regulations 3. Safe disposal of the discharges, effluents and waste materials from the industries and factories. Efficient waste management to be adopted. 4. To create awareness among farming community to adopt better management practices. 5. Encouragement of organic farming. 6. Recommendation of rearing indigenous animals and adoption of Mixed farming - system to improve economic status of farmers. 7. Phytoremediation may be done to decontaminate soil and water to reduce the soil heavy metal content. 8. Identify and growing of trees/ plants to reduce the level of toxic elements from the industrial zones.ThesisItem Open Access Reliability of united score card for crossbred dairy cows of Kerala(Department of Livestock Production Management, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 2010) Dhanya, K; KAU; Anil, K SThe research work was conducted to assess the reliability of Unified score card for cross bred cows of Kerala. One hundred and ninety six animals of University cattle farms of Mannuthy, Thumbunnuzhi and Thiruvazhamkunnu were selected for the study. As per the Unified score card by Purebred Dairy Cattle Association, the animals were judged for frame, dairy character, body capacity, feet• and legs and udder. The type components were again subdivided as described in the scorecard to improve the accuracy of judging score. The body measurements of individual animals like height at withers, body length, chest girth, height at withers, height at pins, length of quarter, width between angles of hook and slope of rump were taken. The animals were categorized into four age groups, four parities and three stages of lactation. The emphasis of each of the components of unified score card to milk production was compared and statistical analysis was carried out as per methods suggested by Snedcor and Cochran (1994). Effects of age, stage of lactation and parity on judging using Unified Score Card were worked out. The body measurements were also correlated with the score and milk yield. Age, parity and stage of lactation were found to be nonsignificant for final score. The scores of frame, dairy character and udder for different age groups showed no significant difference, whereas, scores of body capacity and feet and legs differed significantly. The scores of dairy character and body capacity differed significantly with parity. No significant difference was shown for scores of frame, feet and legs and udder. Frame was found to be positively correlated with other components, the least being with udder (r=0.127) and highest with feet and legs (r =0.254) which was highly significant (p<0.01). Dairy character was significantly correlated with body capacity (r=0.169) and feet and legs(r=0.2S4) in addition to frame. Feet and legs was the only component to which udder showed positive significant correlation (pAge was found to be not significant for lactation yield (P~O.OS). The means of lactation yield differed significantly for different parities. All the type components were found to be positively correlated with lactation yield, all being significant. The standardized partial regression coefficients were highly significant for dairy character, udder. and body capacity whereas non significant regression coefficients were obtained for frame and feet and legs. Udder depth was having the highest regression coefficient (~=0.312) which was highly significant (p<0.01). Regression coefficients were significant and positive for skin (0.229), withers (0.188), ribs (0.174) and thighs (0.162). Both age and parity had significant positive correlation on body weight. Body weight was significantly (p<0.0 1) correlated with lactation yield with r=0.244. Height at withers, length, hip width girth and height at hook showed significant difference with age (p:SO.OS).The height at pins and slope were found to be not affected significantly by age. All the measurements except slope were significant and positive in correlation with body capacity. All height measurements, length and girth was found to be positively correlated with frame (p<0.0 1). Final score was having significant positive correlation with all height measurements (p:SO.OS). It was concluded that although the score card was found to be reliable on the production of crossbred cows of Kerala, the emphasis placed on type components was not in full agreement with what was prescribed by the purebred Dairy Cattle Association Dairy Cow Unified Score Card. Hence it was suggested that more weightage could be given to body capacity and dairy character compromising weightage on frame and feet & legs which necessitated further studies in this regard.ThesisItem Open Access Comparative evaluation of porcine production performance in terminally sired and purebred progenies under different management conditions(Department of Livestock Production Management, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 2007) Murugan, M; KAU; Joseph, MathewA study was conducted to evaluate the production performance of terminally sired and purebred progenies under different management conditions. Twenty gilts were selected from Large White Yorkshire and also each combination of Large White Yorkshire x Landrace, Landrace x Desi and Large White Yorkshire x Desi . After attaining maturity, they were bred to terminal sire (Duroc). Large White Yorkshire was maintained as pure line. Litter performance of LWY and three breed combinations viz., D x (LWY x LR), D x (LR x Desi) and D x (LWY x Desi) were comparatively evaluated. Twenty four weaned piglets were selected at random from each genetic combination and they were divided into four groups having six animals in each group. Piglets T1 were fed with concentrate feed and T2, T3 and T4 from each genetic group were fed with left over food from hotels, restaurants, slaughter house waste and waste available from agricultural fields. In addition to this, T3 group were supplemented with inorganic minerals and T4 group were supplemented with organic minerals @ one per cent level on dry matter basis from third month to ten months of age. The crossbreds viz., D x (LWY x Desi) and D x (LR x Desi) had highly significant (P<0.01) difference in litter size at birth, litter weight at birth, birth weight, litter size at weaning, litter weight at weaning and weaning weight compared to LWY and D x (LWY x LR) pigs. There was no significant difference between LWY and D x (LWY x LR) ; D x (LWY x Desi) and D x (LR x Desi) pigs in all these litter traits. There were no significant differences (P>0.05) in maximum and minimum temperature and relative humidity between farm and field. There was no significant difference (P>0.05) in mean rectal temperature, pulse and respiration rate between treatments and genetic groups. Significant difference (P<0.01) were observed between morning and afternoon pulse and respiratory rates irrespective of treatment and genetic groups. At the time of feeding, majority of the pigs in different treatments and genetic groups showed eating greedily with drooling of saliva and ear biting, belly nosing and tail biting very frequently. Quantity of faeces voided had a highly significant (P<0.01) difference between treatment in all four genetic groups. LWY pigs voided significantly lesser quantity of faeces than other genetic groups within the treatment. Frequency of defaecation had no significant difference, between treatments and genetic groups. There were no significant differences (P>0.05) in the faecal cortisol level between the treatments and genetic groups of pigs. The proximate composition (percentage) of pooled swill feed samples are comparable to farm concentrate except ether extract (24.56; 6.05 and 4.13) which was very higher in swill feed. Total ash content was higher in the farm concentrate (10.91, 10.13; 6.61). Availability of minerals was higher in inorganic form compared to organic form. Mineral assay revealed that chicken waste showed higher levels of minerals followed by hotel waste and vegetable waste. There was no significant difference between genetic groups within the treatment in serum mineral concentration. The feeding system had highly significant (P<0.01) effect on the mineral concentration. It was highest in T4 followed by T3 and T1 and least in T2. It was comparable between T3 and T2. There was no significant difference in monthly body weights (kg), body measurements viz., body length, girth and height (cm), average daily weight gain and average daily feed intake (g) of pigs between concentrate (T1) and swill feeding (T2). T4 significantly (P<0.01) better than other treatment groups. T3 was significantly (P<0.01) better than T2 and T1. Crossbred pigs had significantly (P<0.01) higher monthly body weight, linear body measurements, average daily weight gain and average daily feed intake than LWY pigs within the treatment. Among the three crossbreds there was no significant difference observed in monthly body weight, linear body measurements, average daily gain and average daily feed intake except in concentrate feeding. In concentrate feeding, D x (LWY x Desi) crossbred consumed significantly (P<0.01) less feed than the other crossbred pigs. There was significant (P<0.01) difference in feed efficiency between T1 and T2. No significant difference was observed between T2, T3 and T4. There was no significant difference between LWY and crossbred pigs within the treatment. T4 attained significantly (P<0.01) higher slaughter weight (kg), hot carcass weight (kg) and carcass length (cm) than the other treatment groups. T3 group attained significantly (P<0.01) higher slaughter weight, hot carcass weight and carcass length than the T2 and T1 treatment groups. No significant difference between T1 and T2 was noticed. T1 had significantly (P<0.01) higher dressing percentage than other treatment groups. T1 had significantly (P<0.01) lesser back fat thickness. There was no significant difference between T2, T3 and T4 in dressing percentage and back fat thickness. T2 had significantly (P<0.01) lesser loin eye area and meat-bone ratio than other treatment groups and there was no significant difference between T1 and T3 and T4. Gut weight was significantly (P<0.01) lesser in T1 than other treatment groups. There was no significant difference between T2, T3 and T4. There was significant (P<0.01) difference between LWY and crossbreds in terms of slaughter weight, hot carcass weight, carcass length, back fat thickness and loin eye area, within the treatment. There was no significant difference noticed between dressing percentage, meat-bone ratio and gut weight within the treatment. Cost of production per kg live weight on feed basis was high in T1 followed by T4, T3 and T2. It was inferred that swill feed supplemented with minerals can increase the profit margin provided a cheaper substitute for the organic minerals presently available in the market is absolutely essential for the field fattener pig production. Swill feed was found to be equally effective compared to concentrate feed in promoting growth of the fattener pig production existing under field conditions. Growth performance and carcass characteristics can be improved by supplementation of minerals in the diet of fattener pigs. Crossbred pigs excelled over pure LWY in terms of post weaning growth performance and carcass characteristics under terminally sired pigs. The crossbreds viz., D x (LR x Desi) and D x (LWY x Desi) had better litter performance than D x (LWY x LR) and LWY pigs. Considering both litter performance and post weaning growth performance, the recommendation is that D x (LR x Desi) and D x (LWY x Desi) crossbreds are best suited for the field fattener pig production in the hot-humid climatic conditions.ThesisItem Open Access Draught Efficiency of Elephants in Timber Mills(Department of Livestock Production Management, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences,Mannuthy, 2001) Prasad, A; KAU; Saseendran, P CSix elephants working in four different private timber mills in Trichur district were selected for the present study. Average weight of elephants estimated using formula was 4627.80 + 114.15 kg. Elephants consumed 213.00 + 3.338 kg roughages and 7.50 + 0.475 kg of concentrate. They obtained 9.721 + 0.837 kg dry matter, 3.613 + 0.075 kg DCP and 31.517 + 0.754 kg of TDN over and above maintenance requirement, which may be the amount of nutrient utilized for work performance. Elephants were engaged for three types of work in timber mills, carrying, moving/stalking and hauling timber logs. Mean draught developed during carrying was 445.095 + 22.448 kg. Elephant could be made to carry weights upto 20 per cent of their body weight on their tusk during carrying and stalking/moving timber. A new instrument called Elephant Draught Power Monitor was fabricated to measure the draught developed during hauling timber. A regression, Y = 0.7787 x – 100.69 (where Y is the draught developed and X is the weight of the log hauled) was developed from the measurements. The draught power estimated this equation was compared with the values obtained by the formula draught = load x CosƟ. It was assumed that the formula draught = load x CosƟ was not suitable for elephant draught power measurement. The average draught developed during hauling was 1779.391 + 130.386 kg. Highest maximum of weight that an elephant could be made to haul during instantaneous force development was 188 per cent of the body weight. Maximum limit of weight that an elephant could be made to haul during continuous work was 38 per cent of its body weight. Speed of work of elephants during carrying, moving and hauling was 1.333 + 0.075, 0.630 + 0.014 and 0.701 + 0.014 m/s respectively. Speed of work of elephants decreased with increase in weight of the log transported. The average horse power developed during carrying, moving and hauling were 7.116 + 0.106, 2,566 + 0.048 and 7.138 + 0.280 respectively. The average work output per day during carrying, moving and hauling were 1819.004 + 92.619 KJ, 179.718 + 5.955 KJ, 3375.373 + 16.885 KJ respectively. Maximum work output from elephant was obtained during hauling. Maximum work output (34 per cent) occurred during 8.30 am to 9.30 am in timber mills. Elephants were made to work minimum during 12.30 pm to 2.30 pm. Rectal temperature was identified as the most reliable physiological parameter which can be used as an indicator of fatigue. Maximum body temperature recorded during work was 1000 F. Maximum frequency of spraying of saliva during the entire study period was two/minute and maximum frequency of fanning of ears was 45/min. The value of rectal temperature when the elephants were fatigued was 98.60 F. Work may be stopped and elephant should be given rest before reaching this body temperature to avoid undue fatigue. Mechanised power which replaces elephant power in many timber mills has certain advantages. But use of elephant has got the advantage of utilization of renewable resources environmental friendliness and greater maneuverability during work.ThesisItem Open Access Factors influencing calf growth and mortality in field and organised farms(Department of Livestock Production Management, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 1994) Shaji, Antony .; KAU; Thomas, C KA study was undertaken to evaluate the system of calf raising in the field vis – a – vis that in organised farms, which included contemporary calves born in field and organised farms. Mavelikkara was chosen as the study area from where the experimental field calves were selected. University Livestock Farm, Kerala Agricultural and Dhoni Farm, KLD Board, Palghat were chosen to represent organised farms in the experiment. All the calves born in the experimental area or farms during a period of two months were included in the experiment. Calves were studied upto period of six months of age. It was observed that climatic conditions in general were similar at the three locations except that at ULF, Mannuthy relative humidity and hours of bright sunshine tended to be less than the other two locations. The male calves in the farms weighed heavier at birth and gained faster to weigh significantly more at the 12th fortnight compared to those in the field. There was no significant difference in birth weight of farm and field born female calves. However, those in the farms grew faster to weigh significantly heavier at 12th fortnight. When male and female calves in the farms and field were put together and tested at 1st, 6th and 12th fortnights, the calves in the farms weighed significantly heavier than those in the field at all stages. The daily weight gain during different fortnights was higher in the farm grown calves compared to their counterparts in the field. There was no significant difference in height of male calves in the farm and field in the 1st fortnight but was significantly higher in the farm grown calves in the 6th and 12th fortnights. There was no significant difference in the height of the female calves in the farms and field in all the three fortnights tested. Information with respect to girth showed similar trend as in the case of weight and height. In the first fortnight, the male calves in the farms measured significantly shorter in length than those in the field but by 6th and 12th fortnights, they measured significantly longer than male calves in the field. There was no significant difference in length of female calves in the field and farms during the time intervals tested. In the field, calves received generally an adequate amount of colostrum through suckling. Those in the farm were fed 2 – 2.5 kg colostrum daily from the pail. The interval between birth and first nursing varied from 15 min to 2 h in the field. In the farms, calves born during day time received colostrum within half an hour, while those born in night received colostrum the next morning. Highest daily gain and lowest mortality was seen in calves fed colostrum within 15 minutes. It was observed that the quantity of milk available to female calves in the field was comparable to that in the farms. Male calves in the field received much lesser quantity. Female calves received more quantity of concentrates compared to males except in the early fortnights. Maximum daily gain of calves was observed in sheds with concrete flooring and tiled roofs. Monthly deworming was practised upto 12 months of age in the two farms studied. In the field all calves were dewormed during the 1st month only. Thereafter, female calves were given more frequent deworming treatment. Vaccination against Foot and Mouth disease was carried out in the farms but not in the field. Good hygiene and daily grooming increased the daily gain of calves. Better growth was seen when the animals were looked after by men than women. Average dairy awareness was observed in 90 per cent of the farmers. Daily gain of calves increased with increased dairy awareness. People with high school level education maintained their calves better than those with higher or lower levels of education. Calves grown by agricultural labourers seemed to have lower weight gain. Calves reared in larger units of land had a greater daily weight gain. The mortality rate among calves was 14 per cent in the field compared to 8.5 per cent in the farms. Mortality rate of 66.6 per cent was seen no colostrum was fed. There was no mortality among calves fed colostrum within 15 minutes. Male calves had higher mortality rate than female calves. Higher mortality rate was observed in calves born to first calvers. In field mortality was higher in 1st and 5th month of age. Mortality rate was lower when calves were looked after by men compared to women. The lowest calf mortality rate was observed among calves owned by those who had high school level education. Mortality rate among calves seemed to decrease with increasing dairy awareness of owners. Mortality rate of calves was highest in shed and premises with poor hygiene (50%) followed by medium hygiene (11.11%) and good hygiene (10.5%). Similarly daily grooming seemed to reduces mortality rate (11.9%) compared to weekly grooming (25%). At the end of 6 months, 92.85 per cent of the female calves were retained by the farmers compared to only 36.36 per cent male calves, clearly pointing towards the greater future economic utility of the former.