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Dr. Y. S. Parmar University of Horticulture & Forestry, Solan
Dr. Yashwant Singh Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Solan, was established on 1st December, 1985 with the objective to promote education, research and extension education in the fields of Horticulture, Forestry and allied disciplines. Late Dr. Yashwant Singh Parmar, the first Chief Minister and the architect of Himachal Pradesh perceived the importance of Horticulture and Forestry to develop and improve the State economy which led to the establishment of this University. Its history lies in erstwhile Himachal Agricultural College, Solan, established in 1962 and affiliated to the Panjab University. It became one of the campuses of Agriculture Complex of Himachal Pradesh University on its formation in 1970. Consequent upon the establishment of Himachal Pradesh Krishi Vishvavidyalaya in 1978, this campus became its Horticulture Complex and finally in 1985, assumed the status of a State University, being the only University in the country engaged exclusively in teaching, research and extension in Horticulture and Forestry.
The University is located at Nauni in Solan District of Himachal Pradesh, 13 km from Solan on Solan-Rajgarh Road, at an elevation of 1300 metres above mean sea level. Solan town is situated on national highway (NH-22) and is well connected by train and bus services.
The University has four constituent colleges, out of which, two are located at the main campus Nauni, one for horticulture and the other for forestry, having 9 and 7 departments, respectively. The third College i.e., College of Horticulture & Forestry is located at Neri in Hamirpur District on Nadaun-Hamirpur state highway, about 6 Km from Hamirpur town and is well connected with bus service. The college offers three Undergraduate Degree Programmes i.e. BSc (Hons.) Horticulture, BSc (Hons.) Forestry and B. Tech. Biotechnology and MSc degree programme in a few subjects. The fourth college i.e. College of Horticulture and Forestry, Thunag (Mandi) is located at Thunag District Mandi. This college offer BSc (Hons.) Horticulture and BSc (Hons.) Forestry degree programme. In addition, there are five Regional Research Stations, 12 Satellite Stations and five Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs) situated in different zones of the State.
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ThesisItem Open Access IMPACT ANALYSIS OF MID-HIMALAYAN WATERSHED DEVELOPMENT PROJECT: A CASE STUDY OF SM-1A MICRO-WATERSHED IN ANI TEHSIL OF KULLU DISTRICT IN HIMACHAL PRADESH(UHF,NAUNI, 2015) KAPIL, DEV; SHARMA, RAVINDERABSTRACT Present study analyzed the “Impact analysis of Mid-Himalayan Watershed Development Project: A case study of SM-1A micro-watershed in Ani tehsil of Kullu district in Himachal Pradesh”, A sample of 30 project beneficiaries as well as 30 nonbeneficiaries was for assessing the impact of project. Results revealed that at overall level the average family size of beneficiary farms and non-beneficiary farms were 7.80 and 8.09 persons respectively. Literacy situation revealed that nearly 87.50 per cent family members were literates and literacy index was 2.53 at overall level on beneficiary farms while in case of non-beneficiary farms the literacy rate and literacy index was 90.16 and 2.72. The average size of land holdings on marginal, small and semi medium farmers was 0.70 ha, 1.35 ha and 2.25 ha, respectively on beneficiary farmers while the average size of land holdings on marginal, small and semi medium of non-beneficiary farmers was 0.65 ha, 1.23 ha and 2.12 ha, respectively. An area under wheat, urad and kulath has decreased by 2.96, 2.56 and 1.03 per cent, whereas in case of vegetable and fruits the area has been increased by 0.02, 0.38, 0.26, 0.06, 0.06, 0.22, 0.64 and 0.14 per cent under okra, cauliflower, cabbage, tomato, chilly, ginger, onion and potato. With the intervention of project there has been decline in the area under pulses by 3.49 per cent on beneficiary as compared to non-beneficiary farms. The area under mango and apple crops has significantly increased by 1.71 and 0.86 per cent, whereas in case of almond area has been decreased by 2.56 per cent on beneficiaries as compared to non-beneficiaries. At overall level, total production on an average farm situation under beneficiary and non-beneficiary farms was found to be 7.29 and 7.14 qtls, respectively. The water harvesting and storage structures check dam (120 m 3 ) and six tanks were constructed in the micro-watershed under the project with a total expenditure of Rs. 1.76 lakh and 8.64 lakh. Land slide erosion (38 m 3 ) and crate wire structure (20 m 3 ) were also constructed with a total expenditure of Rs 45 thousands and 36 thousands in the microwatershed. The percentage change in the net returns on the basis of economic cost of cereal crops among beneficiary and nonbeneficiary farms have decreased by 15.81 and 5.00 per cent in case of beneficiaries as compared to non-beneficiaries. The increase in productivity was found to be highest in case of potato (956.69 %) followed by ginger (70.46 %), chilly (42.78 %) and tomato (32.30 %) on beneficiary farms as compared to non-beneficiary farms. The major problems coming in the way of watershed development areas were the inadequate training of the farmers about the use of watersheds, lifting of water from check dam, lack of market facilities for farm output, lack of knowledge about seed treatment, lack of outside field visits and lack of coordination among beneficiaries and problem related to kuhl irrigation system in the study area. The returns on the basis of economic cost from mango crop were found to be higher on beneficiary as compared to non-beneficiary farms whereas, in case of almond and apple crops returns were low. The percentage change in the net returns of mango crops among beneficiary and non-beneficiary farms was found to be 4.53 per cent higher in case of beneficiaries as compared to non-beneficiaries and returns from almond and apple crops have decreased by about 9.48 and 149.88 per cent, respectively.ThesisItem Open Access ECONOMICS OF PRODUCTION AND MARKETING OF NTFPS: A CASE STUDY OF HARAR (Terminalia chebula) IN HIMACHAL PRADESH(UHF,NAUNI, 2014) GULERIA, AMIT; SHARMA, RAVINDERABSTRACT Present study analyzed the “Economics of Production and Marketing of NTFPs: A case study of ”, a sample of 20 farmers and 5 contractors each from Sirmour and Kangra dist. of Himachal Pradesh. Besides this, 10 other market functionaries from the Amritsar market were also selected for the study. Results revealed that nearly 85.91 per cent family members are literates with literacy indices of 0.92 indicating low quality of education. The total area under harar was more on field boundaries (0.18 ha) in comparis on to pasture land (0.06 ha). The area under hararwas found to have a positive relation with the size of the farm. Cropping intensity was 160.00 per cent, which indicates that there is a scope for increase in farm efficiency. Cost of collection of hararin the study area was Rs. 1042.01 per quintal.About 2.5 quintal of green hararis needed to prepare one quintal of dry harar. The processing cost of one quintal of dry hararwas estimated Rs 5511.50. Average establishment cost per year was Rs 13550 per 100 plants. The maintenance cost of grafted harar increased from Rs 12241.78 to Rs 123675.30 during 2 nd year to 15 th year and net returns varied from Rs (-) 12241 to 116262. The pay back period worked out to be 9 years, NPV as Rs 226,106, the benefit-cost ratio as 1.57 and internal rate of return (IRR) as 33 per cent under the present value summation method. The Gini concentration ratios for green hararand driedharar was 0.40 and 0.16 respectively and relative mean deviation (RMD) was found 0.183 and 0.20 in case ofgreen and dried harar respectively and indicating that there exist a high degree of competitiveness for dried hararas well as for green hararin Amritsar market. which means market for both types of the products is competitive. Coefficient of variation (CV) in the case of green harar was found 0.43 as compared to 0.51 in case of dried harar. A lower value is indicative of higher completion in the market. The entropy index whose value lies between 0 and 1 and higher value implies higher competition. The value of entropy index for green harar was found 0.97 and for dried harar0.94. In the Amritsar market it was found that commission charged varied from 6 to 10 per cent in addition to a market fee of 2 per cent of the transaction. In addition to this, Rs 40 per quintal is charged as state tax by the forest department of the state since hararis considered as forest produce. Though 1 per centis charged as rural development fund but the facilities in the market are of poor quality. System of sale is through open sale; however market intelligence is only through personal communication only. It was found in the study that Producer – Local Trader – Primary wholesaler – Secondary wholesalers - Consumer (Channel- D) was found to be the most preferred channel, since 50.63 per cent of the produce was traded through this channel and marketing cost incurred in this channel was also maximum as compared with others i.e. Rs. 2139.01. Producer’s price varied from Rs 1013 to Rs.1757.99 among different channels. Net marketing margins varied between16.78to 35.42 per cent. The technical problems faced by the farmers were long gestation period, lack of planting material and irrigation facilities. Marketing problems included distant markets, lack of transportation facilities and behavior of wholesalers for not taking the consent of the collectors/producers while selling the produce. Problems such as long gestation period from planting to harvesting and monkey menace were ranked as high severity. Higher profitability of harar as compared to other crops in the study area was the major factor responsible for the cultivation of harar.ThesisItem Open Access ECONOMICS OF PRODUCTION AND MARKETING OF IMPORTANT MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTS IN MID HILLS OF HIMACHAL PRADESH(2012) GULARIA, CHANDRESH; VAIDYA, M.K.ABSTRACT In the present study entitled “Economics of Production and Marketing of Important Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in Mid Hills of Himachal Pradesh”, multistage random sampling technique was used to select the sample. A sample of 50 farmers cultivating medicinal and aromatic plants were selected. The farmers were categorized on the basis of total size of their land holding as marginal (<1 ha), small (1-2 ha), medium (2-4 ha), large (>4 ha) and as overall. Local markets of Jogindernagar, Solan and a distant market of Amritsar were selected purposively for conducting marketing study. A total sample of 5 local traders from local markets and 5 wholesalers from Amritsar market was drawn randomly from the selected markets dealing in M&AP’s marketing. Category wise cost of cultivation of these medicinal plants was calculated and the financial tools like NPV, BCR, IRR were applied to determine the financial feasibility of the plantations. Literacy situation revealed that nearly 87.89 per cent family members are literates at overall level with literacy indices of 1.15 indicating low quality of education. The majority of family members (23.94 %) had education upto senior secondary level. M&AP’s occupy 25.25 per cent of the gross cropped area in the sample farms at an overall level, which decreased as the size of the farms increased . The cropping intensity at overall level worked out to 138.70 per cent. The cultivation of M&AP’s component was also seem to be quite prominent; with its contribution to total household income ranging from 20.56 per cent in marginal farmers to 29.54 per cent in large farmers. At an overall level, per hectare total cost of cultivating Aloe vera was Rs. 140057.88, Rs. 60533.31 in the 1st and 2nd year of plantation while Rs. 47748.06 per hectare during 3rd to 5th per year respectively while the gross returns obtained for different years were Rs. 35755.51, Rs. 97867.66, Rs. 109381.81, Rs. 112318.20 and Rs. 110227.19 for 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th year respectively. Net present value was estimated to be Rs. 52944.82, with benefit cost ratio 1.18 and IRR of 36 per cent. Per hectare total cost of Stevia cultivation on overall farms was found to be Rs. 478941.51, Rs. 66915.82 for the 1st and 2nd year of plantation while Rs. 44824.00 in 3rd, 4th, and 5th year respectively while the gross returns obtained for different years were Rs. 115953.68, Rs. 217254.82, Rs. 227173.10, Rs. 237978.97 and Rs. 232910.54 for 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th year respectively. The value of net present worth was found Rs. 1.40 lacs with a benefit cost ratio of 1.22 and IRR of 32 per cent. Per hectare total cost of Lemon grass cultivation was found to be Rs. 78909.47, Rs. 53338.81 in the 1st and 2nd year of plantation while Rs. 49774.57 per year from 3rd to 5th year, the gross returns obtained for different years were Rs. 20570.26, Rs. 74497.23, Rs. 87120.91, Rs. 89837.04 and Rs. 88302.98 for 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th year respectively. The financial indicators such as net present value (Rs. 36669.08), B/C ratio 1.16 and IRR (40 %) showed economic feasibility of lemon grass in the study area. Total cost of cultivation of Safed Musli, at an overall level was found to be Rs. 286217.99 and returns were found to be 371680.00 per hectare. It was noted that major cost of plantations was of the material cost in the 1st and 2nd year while labour cost was found to be dominating after 2nd year. The benefit cost ration for Safed Musli was estimated to be 1.30 at overall level. Cooperative marketing channel was found the most prominent channel in case of Aloe vera and Stevia followed by local trader cum commission agent channel. Processing unit channel was found the most prominent channel in case of Lemon grass and Safed musli. It was found that in case of Safed musli more than 50 per cent of the produce could not be sold due to lack of market in the study area. High prices of the quality planting material, lack of technical knowhow, lack of availability of the planting material, were some of the production problems faced by the farmers in the study areas. Lack of processing facilities, absence of minimum support price, lack of regulated markets, lack of technical knowledge about grading and that of high cost of transportation were found to be the major problems in the marketing of M&AP’s. Poor access to good credit facilities due to lot of formalities involved in obtaining subsidies and in institutional finance and lack of poor extension activities were some of the other constraints in the cultivation of M&AP’s.ThesisItem Open Access ECONOMICS OF PRODUCTION AND MARKETING OF WILD POMEGRANATE IN HIMACHAL PRADESH(2013) DOGRA, DEVENDER SINGH; VAIDYA, M.K.ABSTRACT In the present study entitled “Economics of Production and Marketing of Wild Pomegranate in Himachal Pradesh”, a multistage random sampling technique was used to select the sample. A sample of 40 farmers cultivating wild pomegranate plants was selected. The farmers were categorized on the basis of total size of land holding as marginal (<1 ha), small (1-2 ha), medium (2-4 ha), large (>4 ha). Local markets of Shimla, Solan and a distant market of Amritsar were selected purposively for conducting marketing study. A total sample of 5 local traders from local markets and 5 wholesalers from Amritsar market was selected randomly from the selected markets. Category wise cost of production was calculated and the financial tools like NPV, BCR, IRR were applied to determine the financial feasibility of the wild pomegranate plantations. Literacy situation revealed that nearly 80.45 per cent family members were literate at overall level. The majority of family members (24.44 %) had education up to matriculation level. Wild pomegranate occupies 0.08 ha of the agricultural area and 0.10 ha in ghasinis in the sampled farms at an overall level, which increased with size of the farm. The cropping intensity at overall level worked out to 134.31 per cent. The cultivation of wild pomegranate contributed 8.02 per cent to total household income at overall level. Per hectare total cost of cultivating wild pomegranate was Rs. 2752.50, Rs. 2979.50, Rs. 3078.00 and Rs. 3187.50 in marginal, small, medium and large farmers respectively. The maintenance cost of non-bearing plants was Rs. 3543.82, Rs. 3626.62 and Rs. 3714.28 per hundred plants in first, second and third year respectively. The share of labour cost varied from 19.49 to 20.50 per cent, while the proportion of family labour in total labour was 80.75 per cent. The per cent share of material cost in total cost was 22.15, 22.95 and 23.69 per cent in first, second and third year respectively. Maintenance cost during bearing stage at overall level was increasing with the age from Rs. 5567.36, Rs. 6818.71, Rs. 7662.97 to Rs. 8072.92 in the age groups of 4-7, 8-11, 12-15 and 16-24 years respectively and then decreased to Rs. 6994.22 and Rs. 6260.42 in the age group of 25-27 and 28-30 years respectively. The proportionate share of variable costs in the total cost was 49.60 to 65.49 per cent and showed increasing trend up to the age group of 16- 24 years and thereafter, a declining trend was observed. Fixed cost contributed 34.51 to 50.40 per cent in the total cost. The share of labour in total cost varied between 27.23 to 45.74 per cent in the different age groups. The share of family labour in total labour was about 80.00 per cent. The total material cost was found 14.22 to 17.02 per cent of total cost and showed an increasing trend with the increase in age. Processing cost which is a human labour cost and all work was carried out by family labour in all categories of farmers, was worked out to Rs. 6665.04, Rs. 23729.27, Rs. 26231.25, Rs. 32669.16, Rs. 26399.45 and Rs. 23532.04 for the fruits obtained in the age groups of 4-7, 8-11, 12-15, 16-24, 25-27 and 28-30 respectively, after which the cost of processing declined while the highest gross returns obtained was Rs. 53486.87 in the age group of 16-24 years. The pay back period of wild pomegranate plantation was at 8 years for all the farm categories. At overall level, NPV was estimated to be Rs. 19714.12 per hundred plants at 12 per cent discount rate and was negative for all the farm sizes at the discount rate of 24 per cent. The internal rate of return estimated to be 20.35 percent at overall level. At the discount rate of 12 per cent and 18 per cent benefit-cost ratio for all categories was found to be greater than unity. Further it was observed that marginal farmers could not bear any increase in costs up to 10 per cent at the discount rate of 12 per cent. Wild pomegranate plantations was feasible in case of medium and large farmers at the discount rate of 12 per cent if the returns decreased by 10 per cent however, marginal and small farmers could not bear this increase. At 18 per cent of discount rate only marginal farmers could withstand up to 10 per cent increase in costs, but if the returns decrease by 10 per cent the plantation could be failed. At the discount rate of 24 per cent no plantations are feasible. The agencies involved in the marketing of anardana and its by-product in the study area are local traders, primary wholesalers, secondary wholesalers and retailers. Local traders were found the most prominent intermediary in the marketing of anardana. It was observed that Channel- C; Producer–Local Trader–Secondary Wholesaler– Consumer (Industries), was found to be the most preferred channel, since 47.50 per cent of the produce was traded through this channel.Lack of irrigation facilities, lack of quality planting material and lack of technical knowhow were some of the production problems faced by the farmers in the study areas.ThesisItem Open Access PRODUCTIVITY ANALYSIS OF APPLE ORCHARDS IN SHIMLA DISTRICT OF HIMACHAL PRADESH(2013) KIREETI, K.; SHARMA, L.R.ABSTRACT The present study entitled “Productivity analysis of apple orchards in Shimla District of Himachal Pradesh” was undertaken with a vision to study the status of apple productivity. Narkanda was selected randomly as the ultimate block of study from the Shimla district of Himachal Pradesh state. The objectives were aimed at analyzing the trends in apple production and productivity, cost of apple cultivation and the factors affecting the apple production and productivity. The study sample was drawn using random sampling method in four stages making a total of 70 orchardist households from five altitudinal zones namely ≤ 1500 m, 1500-2000, 2000-2500, 2500 -3000 and 3000 m amsl respectively in the study area. General mathematical and statistical methods were utilized to perform the present study. Overall multiple regression analysis was carried to know the factors influencing the apple production and for evaluating the economic efficiency of resources. The literacy situation revealed that nearly 89 percent family members are literates in the study area. The average MSI value was calculated to 99.58 at overall level. It was observed that India has registered a compound growth rate of 1.1 MT/ha which is at par with the world average of 1.2 MT/ha in the context of apple productivity, whereas in Himachal Pradesh it was 0.03 MT/ha during the time period 1973-74 to 201112. The maximum mean productivity was noticed in France with an apple yield of 33.60 MT/ha over the 39 years. Among the districts of Himachal Pradesh, Shimla and Kinnaur have shown positive trend in all aspects of apple cultivation. The apple had the pride of having more than 89 per cent of the orchard area in the study region. The productivity analysis in different elevations in the study area revealed that the apple productivities were at par with each other except of that in the lowest elevation (≤ 1500 m). Majority of sampled orchardists in the study region, fall in the income scale of T 2-5 lakhs. On an average per tree establishment cost worked out to R 3318.19 in the study area. Maintenance cost of bearing apple per hundred in the study area ranged between R 60,169.88 to R 61,769.01in different elevations and net return varied between R 162,817.14 and R 269,362.63.17 in different elevations. However, the mean apple productivity (15.60 MT/ha) in the study area as a whole has shown similarity with that of the world average value. The regression analysis has indicated that there exist a scope to increase the apple productivity in the study block, by increasing the levels of the variables like FYM, Chemical fertilizers, human labour, fixed costs and also that it should stick to optimum no. of sprays for plant protection and plant density must be maintained. The findings of the present study strongly recommend the optimum use of the resources in order to adapt to the adverse conditions and attain desired growth in apple cultivation and ultimately the productivity.ThesisItem Open Access AMELIORATING FARM INCOME THROUGH AGROFORESTRY PRACTICES IN MID-HILL ZONE OF HIMACHAL PRADESH(2013) NISHA, DEVI; SHARMA, L.R.ABSTRACT In the present study entitled “Ameliorating Farm Income through Agroforestry Practices in Mid-Hill Zone of Himachal Pradesh” cluster sampling technique was used for selection of sampled households from a randomly selected Pachhad block in Sirmaur district. Sample of 30 households were drawn and were divided into small (<2ha), medium (24ha), and large (>4ha) farm categories. Literacy was 92.23% of sampled households. Agriculture was contributing maximum (52.96%) of total farm income followed by livestock and pasture (28.39%), horticulture (10.31%) and forestry (9.06%). So the system identified was Agri-Pastoral-Horti-Silviculture system. At overall level in 2012-13 agricultural income of household was 126278. Agriculture was main occupation of 78% workers. Grassland accounted highest proportion (61.41%) of total land holding. Average holding of farmers was 2.41 ha. and the share of cultivated land varied between 31.57% (medium farms) to 45.64 % small farms. Vegetables like tomato, capsicum, beans, peas comprised of 46.65% area, followed by cereals (43%) like maize, wheat, barley and agroforestry (8.21%) of gross cropped area. At overall level cropping intensity was 178.58% and density of trees was 42 trees per ha, which was highest on large farms. Average livestock holding of farmers was 7.04, comprised of cross-breed and local and are partly stallfed and partly grazed. Total cost incurred on components of system was 1.82 lacs and net income was Rs. 2.38 lacs. There was 100% adoption of HYVs in vegetables while 93% and 90% in maize and wheat. On an average farmers were using pesticides of Rs 6372 per ha and 104.63 kg fertilizers per ha of gross cropped area. Average crop yields of maize, tomato, capsicum, beans, wheat, barley and peas was 23.92, 188.29, 118.4, 86.58, 16.19, 17.16 and 64.47 Qtls per ha. In regression factors like farm size, family size, literacy, number of fragments was found significant and thus affect tree plantation activity on farms. Study showed that there was scope of increasing incremental income by Rs 29722 per ha from grassland by adopting new technology given by UHF Nauni, while, existing AF technology was more paying than new technology on cultivated land because wild Pomegranate was valuable species growing in that area. At overall level there exist scope of increasing net income of Rs. 26430 by further planting wild pomegranate trees on small (2), medium(7) and large(12) farm Category. Inadequate irrigation facilities, insect-pest and ravages of wild birds and animals were main problems in agriculture and horticulture. Non-availability of novel tree species, barriers for cutting of trees, long gestation period were problems related to forestry in study area. In pasture and livestock major problems were overgrazing and deforestation, poor quality of grasses. Lack of participatory approach, lack of involvement of social institutions and lack of incentives to farmers were some of the other problems in adopting agroforestry practices.ThesisItem Open Access DEMAND ANALYSIS OF MEDICINAL PLANTS IN HIMACHAL PRADESH BASED ON SELECTED PHARMACEUTICAL UNITS(2013) SHILPA; SHARMA, RAVINDERABSTRACT In the present study entitled “Demand analysis of medicinal plants in Himachal Pradesh based on selected pharmaceutical units”, a sample of 10 pharmaceutical units was selected randomly from the list of 41 pharmacies from Solan district. To analyze the demand of medicinal plants used by the pharmaceutical units 10 important medicinal plants were selected. The raw material purchased by the pharmaceutical units mainly comes from Khari-Bawli market of New Delhi and Majtih Mandi of Amritsar. To have an insight into the exact status of extraction of medicinal plants in the state, the extracted species were classified on the basis of habitat, habit, economic part used and present status. On the basis of habitat, only medicinal plants under cultivation showed a positive and significant growth (29.01%/annum) during P-I i.e., 1994-2003. While, during P-II i.e., from 20032012 upper hill subtropical and cold desert showed significant negative growth of (28.74%/annum) and (24.71%/annum) respectively. The variability also increased from P-I to P-II in all the habitats except in cold desert and temperate zone. The maximum average volume as well as revenue was extracted from the temperate zone (10657.79qtls.) and (Rs 3801816) respectively. During 1994-95 to 2011-12 herbs and trees showed significant declining growth of 7.62 and 18.80 per cent per annum respectively. The entire plant showed a negative and significant growth of 21.4 per cent per annum in P-I and seeds in P-II showed negative and significant growth of (45.00%/annum). But, in overall bark, entire plants and rhizomes showed negative significant growth rates (13.43%/annum), (19.44%/annum) and (10.50%/annum) respectively. On the other hand, Barah flowers showed positive and significant growth of 18.34 per cent per annum. The roots yield maximum average volume and maximum revenue of 11335.31 quintals and Rs.250397.33. respectively. The linear growth of medicinal plants based on their present status indicated that only commonly available medicinal plants showed a significant declining growth rate of 10.67 per cent per annum and 9.26 per cent per annum in P-II and overall respectively. The medicinal plant market in Himachal Pradesh is oligopsonic in nature i.e., a small number of large buyers controlling the buying side results in the dominance of buyers thus making medicinal plants market a buyer’s market and non-price competitive in nature. So, they compete with each other through improved working conditions and merging of two buyer’s results in greater control over the market and cooperation through secret collusion to control prices and exploitation of sellers. The analysis showed that all the medicinal plants showed significantly increasing growth except in case of Bankakdi, Kuth, Kutki and Safed Musli. The variability ranged from 68.01 to 2.06 per cent. The real prices showed similar trend as nominal prices except in Banafsha. The own price elasticity of the medicinal plants showed price inelastic demand that ensures a steady market for them. Most of the species showed normal price-demand behavior except Bankakdi, Kuth and Kutki. The reasons for the positive demand-price relationship were derived demand for medicinal plants and the priority of the pharmacy for the finished products. It has been suggested that medicinal plants like Kutki, Kuth and Bankakdi should be given priority in the light of their positive scarcity ratios.ThesisItem Open Access NON-TIMBER FOREST PRODUCTS AND LIVELIHOOD SECURITY: AN ECONOMIC STUDY OF HIGH HILL TEMPERATE WET ZONE HOUSEHOLDS OF HIMACHAL PRADESH(2015) SHARMA, KOMAL; SHARMA, RAVINDERABSTRACT Present study “Non-Timber Forest Products and Livelihood Security: An Economic Study of High Hill Temperate Wet Zone Households of Himachal Pradesh”, was conducted in Parvati Forest Division of Kullu circle. A sample of 60 households was selected for the present study. Results of the study revealed that 83.48 per cent of the households were literate however low literacy index (1.84) highlighted the fact that quality of education was poor. About 48.48 per cent of the total land holding was cultivated area, though the cropping intensity was 172 per cent indicating the scope to enhance the farm efficiency. NTFPs contributed about 24.99 per cent to the total farm income. NTFPs contribution to total income on marginal farms was higher (28.86%) compared to small farms (22.72%). Moreover inclusion of NTFPs income in the farm income resulted in reducing the income inequalities as Gini coefficient with NTFPs income (0.20) reduced to 0.18. Among different NTFPs, the contribution of Picrorhiza kurroa was found highest (65.85%) whereas, Aesculus indica contributed only 1.14 per cent. NTFPs also provided 72 mandays/HH/annum of employment to rural dwellers and maximum days of employment were provided by Jurenia macrocephala. The nominal growth rate of all the medicinal plants showed positive and significant growth. Growth rate was recorded highest for Jurenia macrocepha (17.15%) and lowest for Aconitum heterophyllum (3.84%). Real price growth rate analysis showed that all the medicinal plants were having negative value and decreasing over time except Jurenia macrocephalla (6.57%) which showed positive and significant growth rate over years. Nominal price elasticity for Picrorhiza kurroa, Jurenia macrocephalla and Aesculus indica was more than one i.e., highly elastic in nature with change in price whereas, nominal price elasticity for Morchella esculanta, Aconitum heterophyllum and Valariana jatamansi was less than one indicated that these species were inelastic in nature. Real price elasticity of Picrorhiza kurroa, Morchella esculanta and Aesculus indica was more than one. It revealed that in real value term only these medicinal plants have shown positive and significant growth rate with time whereas, Jurenia macrocephalla has shown negative elasticity indicating highly inelastic in nature. Scarcity ratio was found positive and highest for Morchella esculanta (56.36) followed by Aconitum heterophyllum (8.20) and Picrorhiza kurroa (1.37) and rest other medicinal plants were not found scarce in nature. Socio-economic factors like land holding, literacy index and age of household head were found affecting the NTFPs dependency in the study area. It revealed that people with less land holding were more dependent on NTFPs collection and vice-versa. Similarly family with low literacy index was more dependent on NTFPs collection as compare to the family with high literacy index. Older household heads led to wide knowledge of profitable NTFPs, thus family with experienced elders had more dependency on NTFPs.ThesisItem Open Access EVALUATION OF MID-HIMALAYAN WATERSHED DEVELOPMENT PROJECT: A CASE STUDY OF SD-4E MICRO-WATERSHED IN KANDAGHAT TEHSIL OF SOLAN DISTRICT IN HIMACHAL PRADESH(2015) DEV, RAJ; VAIDYA, MANOJ KUMARABSTRACT Present study analyzed the “Evaluation of Mid-Himalayan Watershed Development Project: A Case Study of SD-4E Micro-watershed in Kandaghat Tehsil of Solan District in Himachal Pradesh”, A sample of 30 project beneficiaries as well as 30 non-beneficiaries were selected from the project sites as to check farmers for assessing the impact of project. Results revealed that at overall level the average family size of beneficiary and non-beneficiary farmers was 6.87 and 7.43 persons respectively. Literacy situation revealed that nearly 92.67 per cent family members were literates and literacy index was 2.95 at overall level on beneficiary farmers while in case of non-beneficiary farmers the literacy rate and literacy index was 79.82 per cent and 2.53 respectively which indicated good quality of education. The average size of land holdings on marginal, small and semi medium farmers was 0.68 ha, 1.37 ha and 2.31 ha, respectively on beneficiary farmers while the average size of land holdings on marginal, small and semi medium of non-beneficiary farmers was 0.57 ha, 1.44 ha and 2.22 ha, respectively. An area under cereal and vegetables crop has been increased by 8.22, 27.40, 24.32, 88.89, 36.35, 59.26, 4.78, 33.90, 28.57, 97.56, 73.22, 81.82, 29.66 per cent for wheat, pea, garlic, ginger, onion, potato, maize, capsicum, cauliflower, beans and cabbage respectively. With the intervention of project there has been increase in the area under cereal and vegetables by 6.40 and 44.93 per cent on beneficiary farmers as compared to nonbeneficiary farmers. The seed rate was found higher in all crops in case of non-beneficiary farmers as compared to beneficiary farmers. Water harvesting and storage structures of stone bunding (check dams) about 90 m3 and seven tanks were constructed in the micro-watershed under the project with a total expenditure of Rs. 1.32 lakh and 9.90 lakh respectively. Land slide erosion and crate wire structure were constructed 30m3 and 15 m3 with a total expenditure of Rs. 54 thousands and 27 thousands in the micro-watershed. The increase in productivity was found to be highest in case of tomato followed by capsicum, garlic, cabbage and pea for beneficiary farmers as compared to non-beneficiary farms. Percentage change in the cereal and vegetable crop was found to be 15.21 and 60.81 per cent of beneficiary farmers over the non-beneficiary farmers, respectively. Increase in the gross return on beneficiary farmers from the cereal and vegetable crops were observed. The percentage change in the net returns on the basis of economic cost in the wheat and vegetable crop was found higher as compared to nonbeneficiary farmers. The percentage change in the net returns on the basis of cash cost was found to be highest in tomato (16.65%) for beneficiary farmers and the percentage change in the net returns from milk was 26.68 per cent higher in case of beneficiaries farmers over the non-beneficiaries farmers. The major problems coming in the way of watershed development areas were the lack of knowledge regarding recommended scientific practices for crop and livestock husbandry, unfavorable climatic condition to recharge of water sources, medical facilities, distribution system through kuhl irrigation, inadequate training, safe drinking water, and high cost of inputs.