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ThesisItem Open Access Morphometric analysis and landslide zonation mapping: a case study from Kumaon division of Uttarakhand(G. B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar, 2022-09) Bohra, Manoj Singh; Deepak KumarThe present study consists of morphometric analysis and preparation of the Landslide Zonation Map for the western Mid-Himalayan region in the Kumaon division of Uttarakhand. The study area i.e., the Kwarab-Khairna region is located in the Almora and Nainital districts of Uttarakhand, with a spatial extent from latitude 29°40ʹ55ʺ N to 29°22ʹ41ʺ N and longitude 79°24ʹ58ʺ E to 79°39ʹ21ʺ E, respectively. The morphometric analysis suggests that the area has an elongated shape with a very coarse drainage texture and subsoil with high permeability, dense vegetation cover and low relief. The drainage area is under the mature development stage with geologic structures having very little impact on the stream network. In the present work, a multi-criteria analysis technique is used for landslide zonation mapping. Thematic maps of different factors, namely slope, aspect, elevation, lineament density, drainage density, rainfall, geology, soil and land use/land cover were prepared and integrated into the GIS platform for the landslide zonation. The analytic hierarchy process was used to determine the weight values for each considered factor. The sub-classes of each thematic map were further rated on a scale from 0 to 9. The landslide zonation map of the Kwarab-Khairna region was produced using the weighted overlay technique. The zonation map divides the area into four zones, namely low, moderate, high and very high. The findings demonstrate that the majority of the area belongs to the moderate landslide zonation class. A significant finding emerged from the study that some of the important locations within the study area such as Khairna, Garampani, Suyalbadi, Suyalgaon, Kagdighat, Kainchi Dham and the NH connecting Almora-Nainital fall under the category of high and very high landslide zones.ThesisItem Open Access Hydrological modelling using SWAT and effect of climate change on rainfall, runoff and sediment yield in the Naula Watershed, Uttarakhand(G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar, District Udham Singh Nagar, Uttarakhand. PIN - 263145, 2021-11) Saran, Bhagwat; Anil KumarSoil and water is one of the most important natural resources for the survival on the earth. Without soil and water the life on the earth is not expected. At present increasing the rate of soil erosion is the matter of serious concern to feed such a huge population. Considering the above facts the present study is undertaken to assess the hydrological behaviour of Naula watershed. In this study the physically based Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model was used to simulate the runoff and sediment yield from the Naula watershed of Ranikhet, Uttarakhand, India. The data used for this study was runoff and sediment yield from the year 1980 to 2012, two years of data (1980-1981) were used to warm up of the SWAT model. The calibration was performed using monthly observed data of runoff and sediment yield from the year 1982 to 2002 and that model was validated using same data from 2003 to 2012. The calibration and validation analysis of the model has been carried out at Naula watershed using SWAT-CUP with the algorithm SUFI-2 (Sequential Uncertainty Fitting) for the runoff and sediment yield. The results of monthly Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency (NSE), coefficient of determination (R2), percent bias (PBIAS) and RMSE-observations standard deviation ratio (RSR) were found to be acceptable for both calibration and validation period. The NSE, R2, PBIAS and RMSE for the runoff simulation were found as 0.68, 0.68, -3.3 and 0.56 during calibration period and 0.62, 0.64, -12.8 and 0.76 for the validation respectively. For the simulation of sediment yield using SWAT-CUP, the NSE, R2, PBIAS and RMSE were found as 0.69, 0.73, -1.3 and 0.56 for the calibration period and 0.75, 0.76, -2.6 and 0.51 for the validation period respectively. NDVI and LULC change detection were also analysed in this study. The highest NDVI values were found as 0.64, 0.72 and 0.55 for the year 2000, 2010 and 2020 respectively. In the LULC change detection, the land covered by the agriculture was 13.87 %, mixed forest 1.95 %, shrub land 6.59 %, barren land 0.58 %, fallow land 11.63 %, water body 0.49 % and evergreen forest 64.85 % of the total area for the year of 2000. However, the area of agriculture and forest gradually decrease while the area of barren land and fallow land increase in the year 2000-2010. In the year 2010-2020; the agriculture land and forest land, fallow land decrease and barren land increases twice as compared to previous year. The area of water body increases very less from the year 2000-2020. Climate change was studied by determining the percentage change of rainfall, runoff and sediment yield from the year 2020 to 2052 (33 years) and 2053 to 2085 (33 years) with the base value of 1980 to 2012 (33 years).ThesisItem Open Access Hydrological response of a spring-fed mid-Himalayan micro-watershed using ArcSWAT(G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar, District Udham Singh Nagar, Uttarakhand. PIN - 263145, 2022-07) Joshi, Himanshu; Devendra, KumarMorphometry and streamflow have always played a decisive role in the development of water resource programs, thus, making its quantification quite crucial. The present work attempts to determine the attributes of a spring-fed micro-watershed, i.e., Kosi R. headwaters, affecting its hydrological response via morphometric analysis, and using a hydrologic model named SWAT integrated over ArcGIS for the estimation of streamflow through facilely available topographical and hydro-meteorological data. The study area is located from latitude N29°50ʹ30ʺ to N29°52ʹ30ʺ and longitude E79°30ʹ30ʺ to E79°34ʹ30ʺ in the Almora district of Uttarakhand, with a spatial extent of 10.7 sq. km. The morphometric analysis suggests that the study area has a dendritic and sub-dendritic drainage pattern with a coarse drainage texture and large drainage density. The micro-watershed and the main channel slope are very steep (49.65 %) and steep (30.8 %), respectively, corresponding to lower infiltration and higher surface runoff with large flow velocities in the channel section. The drainage area is under the mature development stage, with the avg. HI of 0.495. The results from the SWAT and SWAT-CUP suggested that the developed model performed very well in simulating daily streamflow with the values of NSE, ɸ, and RSR of 0.88, 0.811, and 21.9 and 0.85, 0.86, and -3.8 for the calibration and validation period, respectively. Further, sensitivity analysis suggested that the curve number (CN2), available water capacity of soil layer (SOL_AWC()), and saturated hydraulic conductivity (SOL_K()) affect streamflow generation the most. The study also indicates that the surface runoff and ET are the prime processes of abstraction from the study area, with 49.79 % and 40.56 % of the annual precipitation escaping through these processes. The developed model thus provides a quantitative understanding of various hydrological processes occurring within the study area and can generate scenarios for identifying BMPs in soil and water conservation.ThesisItem Open Access Effect of temporally distributed rainfall patterns on runoff-sediment outflow from lands under sorghum and urad crops and with furrow treatment(G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar - 263145 (Uttarakhand), 2021-02) Atul Prakash; Akhilesh KumarIn this study, laboratory experiments were conducted to assess the effect of temporally distributed rainfall patterns namely, Uniform rainfall distribution pattern (URDP), Advanced rainfall distribution pattern (ARDP), Delayed rainfall distribution pattern (DRDP) and Intermediate rainfall distribution pattern (IRDP) considering Sorghum and Urad crop lands and also lands treated with along the slope furrow and across the slope furrow on total runoff, average runoff rate, average sediment concentration and average sediment outflow rate under at selected land slopes. The observations were also analyzed to assess the efficacy of above soil biomass and below soil biomass of these cropping systems on runoff and sediment outflow. This study was conducted on experimental plots using artificially generated rainfall with the help of a rainfall simulation system of 3 m × 1 m size. Rainfall distribution pattern were created by using simulated rainfall and the simulator was operated for 30 minutes to provide a total rainfall of 4.4 cm depth. A comparison of observed values of runoff rate and sediment concentration for whole plant plot and below soil bio mass plot clearly revealed that the for whole plant plot, the lowest runoff rate occurred for URDP while the lowest value of sediment concentration was found in case IRDP at 4% land slope. For 8% land slope, the maximum average runoff rate and sediment concentration rate were observed in case of IRDP. This study clearly revealed that in case of below soil mass plot, the minimum value of runoff was observed in case of URDP and maximum was for ARDP at 4% land slope while at 8% land slope the minimum value of runoff was observed in case of IRDP and maximum was for URDP. Similarly, the minimum average sediment concentration in this case was observed as 1236.66 PPM in case of DRDP and the maximum value of sediment concentration was observed as 1483.33 PPM in case of URDP at 4% land slope. At 8% land slope, the minimum and maximum values of runoff were observed in case of IRDP & URDP rainfall pattern while the minimum and maximum values of sediment concentration were observed in case of DRDP and ARDP rainfall pattern respectively. The observations and analysis of the findings clearly indicated that in case of runoff, plot with below soil bio mass provided better reduction as compared to above soil bio mass plot for every rainfall distribution pattern. In case of sediment, however, the situation was not that clear as in case of IRDP and DRDP below soil bio mass plot provided better reduction in sediment concentration but n case of IRDP and ARDP, above soil bio mass plots had an edge over below soil bio mass plot in sediment outflow control. Observed values of total runoff indicated that the highest runoff rate occurred in case of land without any treatment under URDP while the lowest runoff rate occurred in case of lands treated with across the slope. It was also observed that the runoff rate got reduced by more than 50 in case of lands treated with across the slope as compared to lands without any treatment under every rainfall distribution pattern. It was also seen that the across the slope furrow treatment produced lesser runoff rate by 25.925%, 20.833%, 18.309% and 17.46% as compared to along the slope furrow treatment at 4% land slope under URDP, ARDP, DRDP and IRDP respectively.ThesisItem Open Access Comparative assessment of different geostatistical approaches for spatial interpolation of annual rainfall(G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar - 263145 (Uttarakhand), 2021-02) Verma, Shikha; Singh, Praveen VikramRainfall is an essential component and acts as primary input for hydrological modelling. The availability of reliable data is necessarily important to obtain the maximum benefit from hydrological analysis. The rainfall in rajasthan is so irregular and unpredictable spatially as well as temporally. The measurement of rainfall is very important however it is not practically possible to measure at each and every point. In such situations, rainfall measurements are typically available at a finite number of rain gauges therefore, determination of rainfall at various ungauged stations needs spatial interpolation to assess the spatial variability of the region. The analysis was done over annual rainfall of rajasthan having 253 raingauging stations for a period of 40 years (1980–2019). The present study was an attempt to analyze and compare the performance of different geostatistical spatial interpolation techniques, univariate, Ordinary Kriging (OK), and multivariate, Simple Co-kriging (SCK) and Ordinary Co-kriging (OCK), to interpolate the annual rainfall. In both the techniques, spherical, circular and Gaussian models were used to find the best-fitted semivariogram for rainfall prediction purpose. The nugget-sill ratio was determined for all the nine models to decide the best fit model. The statistical analysis of nugget-sill ratio for univariate and multivariate geostatistical analysis revealed that the ordinary kriging (OK-Circular) and ordinary cokriging (OCK-Spherical) was followed the least standard deviation as 0.1121 and 0.1051, respectively in the dataset. The cross-validation results were depicted the overall comparative evaluation of the selected models in which OCK-Spherical outperformed over OK-Circular by the consideration of different statistical parameters. For OK-Circular, the value of ME, RMSE, MSDE, RMSSDE and ASE were found to be 0.6525, 210.1545, 0.0035, 1.0306 and 204.4955 and for the validation of ordinary co-kriging OCK-Spherical these statistical parameter values were found as 0.3221, 210.3274, 0.0023, 1.0367 and 203.6121, respectively. Finally, the study concluded that the incorporation of elevation as a secondary variable with rainfall, increases the accuracy of estimation of spatial continuity of rainfall at ungauged locations irrespective of its correlation with the rainfall. However, both the selected models performed well for the study area. Statistically, OCK-Spherical worked better than OK-Circular method of interpolation.ThesisItem Open Access Nitrogen release, sediment outflow and water quality parameters with uncoated and neem coated urea application from selected land slopes under simulated rainfall conditions(G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar - 263145 (Uttarakhand), 2020-09) Singh, Sachin Kumar; Akhilesh KumarThe nutrients loss from fertilized agricultural lands not only results in the reduction of fertility of soil but also the accumulation of these chemicals in various water bodies produce harmful toxic effects rendering it unfit for human as well as for animal consumption. Urea fertilizer is highly soluble in water and volatile in nature and constitutes about 82% of the nitrogenous fertilizer used in India. The various pathways of nitrogen loss are volatilization, leaching, de-nitrification and through runoff. To minimize the nitrogen losses and environmental hazards, it becomes imperative to improve the efficiency of nitrogen use by controlling nitrogen release rate of urea as per the plants’ need. To accomplish this task, slowrelease fertilizers (SRF) are produced by coating urea with neem and other biodegradable materials. This neem coated urea helps in retaining nutrients for a longer time and ensures nitrogen availability to plants for significantly longer periods than an uncoated urea fertilizer. In this study extensive experimentation was done in the open field on experimental plots using uncoated and neem coated urea to study their nitrogen release pattern and its effects on sediment outflow and water quality parameters under varying rainfall intensity and different land slope conditions. To create controlled conditions of rainfall, artificial rainfall was generated by developing a portable rainfall simulation system which was capable of producing rainfall almost similar to natural rainfall with complete manual control. As per mandate of this study, apart from control (No crop i.e., bare soil), the nitrogen release rate, sediment outflow and water quality parameters were observed from (i) maize crop land and (ii) marigold crop land. Soil samples and runoff samples were collected and analysed to determine the status of nitrogen content in the soil and runoff water quality parameters such as TDS, pH and electrical conductivity on 2nd day, 6th day, 10th day and 14th after coated and uncoated urea applications. It was observed that developed portable rainfall simulator generated rainfall very similar to natural rainfall. The soil nitrogen content both in case of ordinary urea as well as neem coated urea applications was high in the beginning and decreased with time till 14th day. In case of ordinary urea, the rate of decrease in soil nitrogen content was very fast in the beginning (during 2nd day to 6th day) while in case of neem coated urea, the nitrogen release rate was slow and steady throughout the period. It thus implied that in case of neem coated urea application, the nitrogen becomes available to soil at a uniform rate for longer duration in bare land as well in crop land conditions. The percent nitrogen release up to 14th day after application of uncoated and neem coated urea with maize crop conditions was recorded to be 32.06% and 24.20% at 0% land slope, 33.11% and 25.23% at 2% land slope, 34.22% and 27.43% at 4% land slope, 37.68% and 30.60% at 8% land slope and 39.54% and 31.16% at 12% land slope, respectively under similar conditions. Similarly, sediment out flow and runoff water quality parameters were observed and analysed to see the effect of coated and uncoated urea applications under various combinations of input variables. To quantify the effect of involved variables on nitrogen release and water quality parameters, mathematical relationships were also developed for various combinations of the input variables.ThesisItem Open Access Swat based runoff and sediment yield modelling for upper Shivnath basin(G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar - 263145 (Uttarakhand), 2020-01) Singh, Vijay Kumar; Devendra KumarThe study was undertaken with the major objectives of calibrating and validating the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model to simulate surface runoff and sediment yield for the Upper Shivnath basin. The meteorological and hydrological data are used from 1990 to 1994 for warmup period, 1995 to 2005 for calibration period and 2006 to 2013 for validation period. The developed SWAT model accurately simulated runoff and sediment yield of Upper Shivnath basin. The Soil and Water Assessment Tool based Wavelet Multilayer Perceptron (SWAT-WMLP), Soil and Water Assessment Tool based Wavelet Support Vector Machine (SWAT-WSVM), Soil and Water Assessment Tool based Wavelet Multilayer Perceptron-Genetic Algorithm (SWAT-WMLP-GA) and Soil and Water Assessment Tool based Wavelet Support Vector Machine-Genetic Algorithm (SWAT-WSVM-GA) accurately simulated runoff and sediment yield in comparison to SWAT model. Three different statistical downscaling methods namely delta method (DM), quantile mapping method (QMM) and empirical quantile mapping method (EQMM) were used for downscaling precipitation. Delta method performed better than quantile mapping and empirical quantile mapping methods for downscaling of rainfall at all gauging stations. Impact assessment of climate change during 2020-2039, 2040-2059, 2060-2079 and 2080-2099 scenarios shows that runoff and sediment yield of most of sub-basins will slightly decrease in future. The effect of land use change on runoff and sediment yield were assessed using future use land of 2025, 2045, 2065 and 2085 periods. It was showed that the urban land will increase by 44.56 % during 2025, 71.06 % during 2045, 95.33 % during 2065 and 134.12% during 2085 respectively, while agriculture land will decrease by 2.10 % during 2025, 3.35 % during 2045, 4.49 % during 2065 and 6.30 % during 2085. The surface runoff and sediment yield will increase during 2020-2039, 2040-2059, 2060-2079 and 2080-2099 future scenarios due to impact of land use change.
