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ThesisItem Open Access Identification of groundwater potential recharge zones in Hiran River Watershed using RS and GIS(G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar - 263145 (Uttarakhand), 2021-10) Choudhary, Preeti; Harish ChandraGroundwater forms a substantial part of the total water resources, which provides water for irrigation, municipal supply and industrial use. Unlike mineral resources, groundwater gets replenished by the natural process of recharge. Groundwater utilization should therefore, be properly planned to achieve a balance between replenishment and extraction in order to maintain a perennial supply. In the recent years, geographic information system based studies have gained much prominence in groundwater exploration because it is rapid and will provide first-hand information on the resource for further developments. Therefore, the present study has been undertaken with objectives to analyze morphometric parameters and to identify groundwater potential recharge zones in the Hiran river watershed, Madhya Pradesh, India. The study adopts the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) and Multi-Influencing factors (MIF) approaches with a combination of RS and GIS. The study addressed linear, areal and basin morphometric aspects of the watershed. The morphometric analysis of the watershed revealed that the order of Hiran river watershed was found to be eight.Out of total 7669 drainage network, 5948 were found to be of first order, 1333 were second order, 294 were third order, 65 were fourth order, 19 were fifth order, 7 were sixth order, 2 were seventh order, and 1 was eight order stream. The total length of stream was found to be longer for first order stream and found decreasing with increasing stream order. The mean bifurcation ratio obtained was 3.59 which is within standard range. Hence it was revealed that the watershed having strong structural control in drainage network. Drainage density estimated as 1.6 km/km2, which revealed that watershed, is underlain by highly permeable resistant material with vegetative cover and low relief. Areal aspects of the morphometric analysis showed that the watershed was elongated with gentle ground slope. Total eight thematic layers such as Geology, Geomorphology, Land use/ Land cover, Rainfall distribution, Soil, Slope, Lineament density and Drainage densitywere extracted from conventional and remote sensing data sources. The Spatial Analyst Tool in ArcGIS 10.4.1 was used to integrate all eight thematic layers. The weighted overlay method was used, to identify the Groundwater Potential Recharge Zones (GWPRZs) in the study area. During weighted overlay analysis, each of the thematic layers were assigned a score and weight based on the relative contribution of each of these maps to groundwater potential, which was estimated using the AHP and MIF approaches. The results from the AHP wereclassified into five categories viz., Very good (7.02%), good (36.42%), moderate (31.11%), poor (32.31%) and very poor (0.18%). Similarly in case of MIF, Very good (0.29%), good (34.130%), moderate (59.530%) and poor (6.330%). The results were validated with observed groundwater level data of observation well using ROC curve. The area under the curve for AHP and MIF was found to be 71% and 67.9%, respectively. Based on the ROC curve analysis, it was concluded that AHP approach produced relatively more accurate results than the MIF. It was also revealed from the study that accuracy of these approaches is ultimately depends on the criteria of classification, mean rating score and weight assigned to the thematic layers.ThesisItem Open Access Prioritization and groundwater potential zones mapping of Nanak Sagar catchment using GIS and remote sensing(G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar - 263145 (Uttarakhand), 2021-09) Awari, Aishwarya Harishchandra; Dheeraj KumarNatural resources such as land and water are extremely valuable. For the hill agrarians, water shortage is a major issue. Growing population and industrial growth have created a need for land for food and fodder, posing a challenge to the trade in land and water resources. Water is a valuable resource for food production for the world's population, which is further hampered by climate change. There is an immediate necessity to keep attention on increasing productivity of land. Land and water resource management is the wise use of natural resources including soil, water, plants and animals to improve the quality of life for current and future generations. With this approach in view, the present study of Nanak Sagar catchment of Udham Singh Nagar district of Uttarakhand state in India, was undertaken with the objectives to study morphometric parameters of watershed and their PCA (Principal Component Analysis), prioritization of sub-watershed using MCDM methods (AHP and Fuzzy AHP) and identification of groundwater potential zones. ArcGIS software was used for preparation of various thematic maps of the study area by using toposheets, DEM data and satellite images. The Nanak Sagar catchment was sub-divided into 13 sub-watersheds, SW1-SW13 and 14 morphometric parameters under three aspects were computed PCA was performed and 9 morphometric parameters with variance contribution greater than 8.33 % were identified to perform prioritization using MCDM methods for erosion susceptibility assessment. The AHP and Fuzzy AHP methods were worked out for watershed prioritization. In AHP method, criteria were ranked using significant positive correlation values while, in FAHP, extension analysis method was used. Out of 13 sub-watersheds, SW6, SW7, SW8 and SW10 with an area of 104.96 km2, were identified as most vulnerable to erosion due to steep physiography, high drainage densities and stream frequencies. So, the soil conservation measures can first be applied to these sub-watersheds and then for others depending upon the priority. With the help of ArcGIS software, 6 thematic layers viz., lithology, geomorphology, soil, LULC, slope and drainage density, were prepared. There was a lot of variation in Tarai and Bhabhar zones as depicted by lithology, geomorphology, LULC, and slope map. The weighted overlay method of MIF technique was used to combine these layers. From the results it was concluded that morphometric analysis could be an effective methodology for identifying the erosion susceptible regions. Results indicated that, out of total 407.20 km2 area, 108.66 km2 area have very good potential of groundwater.ThesisItem Open Access Groundwater Modelling in Nashik District using Artificial Neural Network (ANN) and Support Vector Machine (SVM)(G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar - 263145 (Uttarakhand), 2021-09) Dhivar, Yuvraj Nanasaheb; Shiv KumarThe present study was undertaken in Nashik District of Maharashtra to investigate the groundwater behavior and to assess the groundwater utilization development stage; and to develop the groundwater models using Artificial Neural Network (ANN) and Support Vector Machine (SVM) to predict the seasonal depth to water table. The input parameter used were net recharge, net discharge, recharge due to rainfall, recharge due to return flow of irrigation, recharge due to seepage from canals, discharge due to draft for irrigation use, industrial use, domestic use and livestock use and previous year water table depth for the period w.e.f. 1998 to 2018. Four groundwater models were developed in which model 1 and model 2 were developed using annual data whereas model 3 and model 4 were developed using seasonal data. MATLAB R2019a was used to develop the Artificial Neural Network (ANN) based models and e1071 package in R-4.0.1 and R Studio – 1.3.1093 was used to develop the Support Vector Machine (SVM) based models. During the study period of 21 years, out of 181 hydrograph stations, the water table trend at 56 hydrograph stations was found to be as rising, whereas neither rising nor falling water table trend was observed at 78 hydrograph stations and 47 hydrograph stations were found under falling water table trend during pre-monsoon season. In the course of post-monsoon season, 41 hydrograph station were found to be on rising water table trend, 54 hydrograph stations were on falling water table trend whereas about 84 hydrograph stations fell under neither rising nor falling water table trend. There was significant increase in the number of open wells, slight decrease in the number of pump set on bore wells. The area under maize crop, spices, fruit crops and vegetable crop was found to be continuously increasing during the study period. The groundwater balance studies indicated that during the study period, out of 15 talukas, one taluka namely Dindori transformed from lowest category (Safe) to higher category (Semi-critical category); one taluka namely Yeola transformed from higher category (Over-exploited) to lowest category (Semi-critical). However remaining thirteen talukas remained in the same category of groundwater utilization development stage. The value of performance indicators such as r, R2, NSE, MAE, RMSE, MAPE, RMSPE, RRSE and RAE were calculated to evaluate the performance of ANN and SVM based models. Based on the global raking obtained from the values of performance indicators, out of four ANN based models ANN- Model 1 and ANNModel 2 were selected for the prediction of the depth to water table during pre-monsoon and post-monsoon seasons, respectively whereas out of four SVM based models, SVM-Model 1 and SVM-Model 2 were selected for the prediction of the depth to water table during pre-monsoon and post-monsoon seasons, respectively. On comparing ANN and SVM based models, it was found that SVM based model was better than ANN model to predict pre-monsoon depth to water table while ANN based model was found to better than SVM to predict post-monsoon depth to water table. It was concluded that, both ANN and SVM based models were not able to predict the depth to water table precisely however depth to water table predicted by ANN and SVM models followed the trend of observed water table precisely and accurately. Recharging structures such as percolation tanks, cement plugs/bunds, contour trenches, gabion structure, nala bunds, village ponds, underground bandharas or sub surface dykes and KT Weirs were also suggested in problematic regions of the study area.ThesisItem Open Access Linear programming approach for allocation of land and water resources in Kathghariya Distributary Command Area(G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar - 263145 (Uttarakhand), 2021-02) Hussain, Neha; Harish ChandraSoil and water are the two most important requirement of agriculture. The productivity of agricultural crops largely depends on these resources. The present study was conducted in the Kathghariya distributary command area in Haldwani Block of Nainital of district Uttarakhand to estimate the irrigation water requirement of major crops and to develop an area allocation model at different levels of resource availability for maximization of net return. Thirty years (1990-2019) rainfall data were analyzed on the weekly basis using Weibull’s method and monthly basis by using Standardized Precipitation Index (SIP) for the time series on 1, 3, 6, and 12 months. The number of drought and surplus weeks varied from 5 to 29 and 1 to 8, respectively. During study period, the longest drought with respect tone month period is observed in January to June (2010), three months period is observed in April to December (2010), six months period is observed in March to July (1995) and twelve months period is observed in June (2014) to August (2016), respectively based on SPI index. The ground water balance in the canal command area was found 1232.77 ha-m and stage of development is 49.63% which comes under safe category of ground water utilization. The net irrigation requirement of rice, wheat, mustard, potato, sugarcane, lentil, soybean and maize was found 83.99, 157.64, 122.06, 195.07, 580.76, 124.78, 1274, and 40.23 mm, respectively at 50 percent probability level of rainfall. The linear programming model was used to allocate optimal area under different crops using Lingo software for maximizing net return from the command area. Three optimization model were made by considering three weather condition i.e., (normal, drought and surplus) and five probability levels of canal water availability i.e., (50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, and 90%), with and without ground water with crop area constraints. Out of all three plans (normal, drought and surplus), under normal rainfall condition at 50% probability level of canal water availability along with ground water found best with maximum the net return of Rs. 258.21 million and having 177.59% cropping intensity. In this plan crops appear rice, wheat, mustard, potato, sugarcane, lentil, soybean and maize at a level of 1456, 2505, 52, 14, 234, 142, 966, and 1142 ha, respectively. The net return obtain is % higher than the existing net return.ThesisItem Open Access Optimal design of periodic-move sprinkler irrigation system considering pump characteristics(G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar - 263145 (Uttarakhand), 2021-08) Sithole, Thandokuhle Nkululeko Mduduzi; Singh, R.P.The ever increasing costs of pressurized irrigation systems has compelled irrigation engineers to minimize the cost of the system over its useful life. In this study optimization models are developed for designing a single and two pipe sizes periodic-move sprinkler lateral for various values of uniform upward and downward slopes. Two layouts are considered; the peripheral main layout (PML) and central main layout (CML). The optimization model has to maximize the length of the mainline subject to the allowable pressure constraint without throttling the pump at the lateral inlet. The total cost of the system is obtained for the optimal length by using life cycle cost analysis. The step-by-step approach is used for computing the frictional head loss of the pipelines for analyzing the pressure head of sprinklers. The applicability of the optimization models is illustrated by solving standard design problems using LINGO 18.0. The maximum area, pressure variation, pressure head and pump efficiency are obtained as output of the models for the two layouts and their results are compared. The CML was found to cover more area with lesser pressure variation, and better energy efficiency than the PML. Bigger pipe sizes for single and two pipe sizes lateral resulted in the least cost per unit area when compared with smaller pipe sizes. The advantage of using two pipe sizes was also presented in terms of cost savings over single pipe size laterals. The developed optimization models can be used for designing the periodic-move system of sprinkler irrigation for any given field and farmers conditions according to field shape, topography of the land, availability of sprinkler components, pipe sizes and centrifugal pump.ThesisItem Open Access Delineation of potential artificial groundwater recharge zones in Dhela river watershed using GIS and remote sensing(G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar - 263145 (Uttarakhand), 2021-02) Parashar, Meenal; Yogendra KumarThe groundwater is one of the most valuable natural water resources having limited extent and volume. The frequent failure of monsoon, rapid urban development, cultivation of water demanding crops, industrialization and lacking awareness in management of water resources have resulted in the over-exploitation of the groundwater resource. The identification of potential zones for groundwater recharge has become very important aspect for replenishment of groundwater. Keeping this in view, the present study was conducted in the Dhela river watershed with the main objective to prioritize the subwatersheds on the basis of analysis of morphometric parameters of the watershed and delineation of potential sites for artificial groundwater recharge. The Dhela river watershed falls under the Tarai and Bhabhar region of Udham Singh Nagar and Nainital districts of Uttarakhand and lies between 29º 28' 0" to 29º 16' 0" N latitudes and 78º 57' 0" E to 79º 9' 0" E longitudes with an area of 252.062 km2 and a perimeter of 140.625 km. The morphometric analysis of the Dhela river watershed and its 11 sub-watersheds was done through the estimation of eighteen linear, areal and relief aspects such as stream number, stream length, stream length ratio, bifurcation ratio, basin length, drainage density, stream frequency, drainage texture, length of overland flow, elongation ratio, circulatory ratio, form factor, shape factor, compactness coefficient, basin relief, relative relief, relief ratio and ruggedness number. For the analysis, different thematic maps were prepared using toposheets, DEM data and satellite images in ArcGIS 10.4 and QGIS 2.18 softwares. The ASTER DEM data (15m resolution) and the satellite imagery (30 m resolution) were downloaded from Alaska Satellite Facility (ASF) and USGS earth explorer websites, respectively. The prioritization of the sub-watershed was done on the basis of the analysis of the eighteen morphometric parameters by using the Compound Priority (CP) Value method. The land use/ land cover maps of the study area were prepared with the help of SWAT tool in ArcGIS 10.4 software. The maximum area of watershed (138.89 km2) was of Tarai (nutrient rich) soil type and the remaining area has a Bhabhar (stony loamy) soil type. The North and North-East aspects of the study area has thicker vegetation in the form of forests. About 68.50% (172.65 km2) of the area was covered with closed forests (mainly broadleaf deciduous type) and 23.56% (59.38 km2) of the area was found to be favourable for cultivation. The quantitative analysis of morphometric parameters is of immense importance for prioritization of the sub-watersheds in the study area. Seven watersheds namely, SWS3, SWS4, SWS7, SWS8, SWS9, SWS10 and SWS11 with lowest compound value were under high priority class. An immediate attention for the soil and water conservation was required for these watersheds. Therefore, these highest priority sub-watersheds were the hotspots for development and management of Dhela river watershed. Three subwatersheds namely, SWS1, SWS2 and SWS5 were under medium priority class and only one subwatershed SWS12 was in least priority rank for watershed management. Eventually, potential sites for artificial groundwater recharge were identified with the help of geo-visualization techniques and suitable locations for construction of water conservation structures such as farm ponds and check dams were suggested. These could help in enhancing the water availability for various activities in the Dhela river watershed.ThesisItem Open Access Optimal design of subunits for solid-set sprinkler irrigation system(G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar - 263145 (Uttarakhand), 2021-02) Dogra, Kanika; Singh, R.P.Laterals and sub-mains form the subunit of solid-set sprinkler system. In this study optimization models were developed for designing a single, double and multidiameter sprinkler lateral lines and sub-main for various values of upward and downward slopes. Three diameters d1, d2 and d3 are available to be selected for each section of laterals and sub-mains. The annual cost as the sum of annual fixed cost of pipe and energy cost were considered in the objective function. The constraints imposed in the optimization models are the length constraints, allowable frictional head of sub-main and lateral line for acceptable pressure variation, inlet pressure head. The equations related to average discharge and pressures are also written as constraints. The Hazen-Williams equation was used to compute the frictional head loss in the pipelines . In case of subunit to be formed by single pipe size laterals the optimization model selects the number of possible laterals along the sub-main within the allowable pressure variation limit for the given length and diameter of the lateral line. Further, the optimization models are also capable of selecting the number of laterals with length of different diameters for subunit of two and multi-diameter pipes by minimizing the total cost of the subunit within allowable pressure variation limit. The applicability of the optimization models was illustrated by solving the example problem using LINGO 17.0. The effects of slopes, length of pipe with discrete diameters on optimal solutions were analyzed. It was found that the optimal cost of laterals increases and decreases linearly at upward and downward slopes respectively. The pressure variation for single pipe sizes was not achieved to its full range of 20 % and for two and multi-diameter pipe it was fully achieved. The best combinations of 50 – 75 mm for two pipe sizes and 50 -75 – 100 mm for multi-diameter pipe sizes were found in all the cases of optimal subunit design as they have minimum total cost within 20 % of allowable pressure variation limit.ThesisItem Open Access Study on current status, geology and restoration plan for natural springs in hilly region of Uttarakhand(G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar - 263145 (Uttarakhand), 2021-03) Thakur, Pankaj Kumar; Vinod KumarNatural springs (locally called as, “Naula” and “Dhara”) are the sole source of rural and urban water supply in hilly regions of Uttarakhand from ancient times. Due to erratic rainfall pattern, seismic activity, landslides, ecological degradation, change in land use in association with climate change are impacting mountain aquifer system badly resulting half of the Himalayan springs either have died, reduced discharge, become seasonal or deteriorated their water quality. Consequently, tens of thousands of villages are facing acute water shortage for drinking and other household activities. The sustainable growth of hilly regions of Uttarakhand, particularly Pithoragarh cannot be imagined without the availability of springwater in abundant as well in cleanest form in long run. Keeping these problems in view, the present study was carried out in hilly regions of Uttarakhand (in general) and Pithoragarh (in particular) to know current status of natural springs in hilly regions of Uttarakhand as a whole and to delineate springshed, in order to understand the geology of the delineated springshed along with springshed management planning using remote sensing and GIS and to assess the springwater quality of Pithoragarh block for drinking and irrigation purposes by physico-chemical analysis and water quality indices. The QGIS, ArcGIS and Google Earth Pro software were used for delineation of springshed, map preparation and to find out spatial distribution of physico-chemical parameters using digital elevation model, shapefile, geology map etc. The QGIS software was used for creation of shapefile of springshed through delineation of its boundary by adopting valley boundary approach. The study of geology in order to find out dominating rock groups inside delineated springshed boundary, spatial distribution of natural spring in hilly regions of Uttarakhand and spatial distribution of physico-chemical parameters of springwater samples collected from Pithoragarh block, ArcGIS software was used, whereas Google Earth Pro software was used for developing the springshed management plan for delineated springshed. The 18 springwater samples were collected from Pithoragarh block of Pithoragarh district of Uttarakhand. The assessment of 20 physico-chemical parameters namely colour, odour, taste, temperature, pH, TDS, EC, turbidity, total hardness, calcium, sodium, potassium, chloride, magnesium, free CO2, acidity, alkalinity, sulphate, Ca hardness and Mg hardness as carried out in laboratory and evaluated values was compared with BIS, ICMR and WHO standards to adjudged the suitability of water for drinking as well irrigation purposes. The water quality indices for drinking and irrigation purposes were also developed using weighted arithmetic index method for selected parameters. There is a huge network of more than 900 natural springs in the hilly region of Uttarakhand Particularly Pithoragarh district has 210 natural springs out of which 149 have was encircled in the delineated springshed with catchment area of 1,134 km2 and 144 of them was originating from Garhwal group rocks out of the three principal rock groups found inside the springshed boundary namely, Berinag formation, Pithoragarh formation and Almora Crystalline group. On the basis of average value of physico-chemical parameters, no water sample was found completely suitable for drinking and the main reason for unsuitability of water for drinking purpose was total hardness therefore treatment measures specifically for total hardness removal needs be applied before consumption. Only 5% of the sample were found in the “Excellent” category for drinking purpose in accordance to WQI as per the BIS and WHO standards. The permeability index and IWQI showed that no water sample is safe for irrigation purpose whereas on the basis of SAR all the water samples can be used for irrigation. From the study it was concluded that, there is a scope for revival, rejuvenation and restoration of natural springs in hilly regions of Uttarakhand by adopting springshed management approach with the knowledge of geology and RS&GIS. The study was also revealed the fact that, water collected from natural spring needs to be treated before drinking as well as application in the field as irrigation.ThesisItem Open Access Evaluation of GEP and ANN in reference evapotranspiration modelling and a study on effect of PRD irrigation on growth, yield and water productivity of Broccoli(G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar - 263145 (Uttarakhand), 2020-10) Pangam, Heramb; Singh, P.K.Irrigated agriculture has contributed for improving production and productivity in conjunction with other agronomic measures in most parts of the country. On-farm water management for optimal use of the water available with the farmer should be given priority. The precise application of water can be achieved by using water saving techniques like drip and sprinkler in addition to accurate estimation of total water requirement for each crop using different methods. This study was taken up to check the Gene Expression Programming (GEP) and Artificial Neural Network (ANN) techniques for finding suitable models for the estimation of reference evapotranspiration using different input combinations in sub-humid tarai region of Uttarakhand, India.The modelling of ET0 applying both GEP and ANN techniques were done using the daily meteorological data of Pantnagar station for the period of 2010 to 2019. Total of 15 combinations of inputs were used for the development of models. The model with the least number of inputs consisted of only the maximum and minimum air temperatures whereas the model with highest number of inputs consisted of maximum air temperature, minimum air temperature, mean relative humidity, number of sunshine hours, wind speed at 2 m height and extraterrestrial radiation as inputs and with the reference evapotranspiration as the output for all the models. Partial root zone drying (PRD) is a potential deficit irrigation technique. This study investigated the effect of different PRD treatments at different irrigation levels on growth, yield and water productivity of broccoli crop in an open field at Vegetable Research Centre (VRC), G B Pant University of Agriculture & Technology, Pantnagar, Uttarakahnd (India). The results indicated that the model with higher the number of inputs gives more accurate estimation of reference evapotranspiration. It was also found that the addition of extra-terrestrial radiation improved the accuracy of estimation in most of the models developed. On comparing models with the same input combination, it was seen that ANN models performed better than GEP models. The results pertaining to PRD showed that the treatment that used 1PRD at 100 percent level of total water requirement has the highest marketable yield as 10.96 t ha-1 while the treatment of fixed PRD at 50 % of total water requirement recorded the lowest marketable yield with a value of 9.92 t ha-1. The highest water use efficiency and water productivity was found in the treatment with 1PRD and 50 % of total water requirement with a value of 0.05265 kg/ m2–mm and 19.13 L/kg, respectively. The treatment with FPRD with 100 % of total water requirement gave the lowest water productivity that is highest amount of water used (21.62 L/kg) for producing unit kilogram of broccoli. Therefore, it is concluded that PRD can be used as a deficit irrigation technique without any significant reduction in productivity of broccoli crop under drip irrigation with high water productivity.