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ThesisItem Open Access Extraction and Characterization of Essential Oil and Phytochemicals From Galgal (Citrus pseudolimon) Peel and Seeds for Utilization in Food Formulations(Punjab Agricultural University, 2024) Grover, Sumit; Dr Poonam A. SachdevThe study investigated the extraction and characterization of essential oil and phytochemicals from galgal (Citrus pseudolimon) peel and seeds for potential utilization in food formulations. The focus was on identifying the most promising cultivar, evaluating antioxidant activities, mineral content, volatile components, phytochemical extraction, fatty acid composition, sterol profiling, and various extraction methods for essential oil and microencapsulation, thereof. Among the studied galgal cultivars (HRG, PBG & HPG), the one from Punjab (PBG) exhibited superior properties in terms of phytochemicals, essential oil, and bioactive compounds. The antioxidant properties of galgal fruits were evaluated using different methods, including DPPH, FRAP, ABTS, and reducing power assays. PBG (whole fruit) demonstrated the highest antioxidant activity. PBG cultivar showing the highest levels of potassium, sodium, and calcium content analyzed by ICP-OES. Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GCMS) analysis of galgal juice revealed the presence of various volatile compounds. PBG was rich in caryophyllene, D-limonene, á-Pinene, and other minor components. Different solvents i.e hexane, methanol, and DMSO, were used to extract phytochemicals from galgal peel. PBG primarily contained D-limonene, caryophyllene, and á-Myrcene. Fatty acid composition in the seed oil of different galgal cultivars was found to be similar, with SFA:MUFA:PUFA ratios meeting WHO/ICMR recommendations. GCMS analysis identified various sterols in the seed oil, including tetraponerine, squalene, campesterol, stigmasterol, β-sitosterol, and others. Essential oil was extracted from galgal peel using different methods, with supercritical CO2 extraction yielding the highest percentage whereas, Clevenger technique was also found to be effective and cost-efficient. GCMS analysis of essential oil revealed the presence of compounds like D-Limonene, Trans-á-Ocimene, à-Pinene, çTerpinene, Linalool, and more. Essential oil from PBG exhibited the highest antioxidant and antimicrobial activities. Microemulsions of essential oil using maltodextrin, gum Arabic, and soy lecithin were prepared and most stable emulsion was used for spray drying for the formation of microencapsulated powder. These extracted phytochemicals were added in yoghurt. The incorporation of microencapsulated powder into food products such as desi ghee, canola oil, and bread spread resulted in enhanced shelf life and sensory quality. This microencapsulated powder could serve as a natural preservative in food formulations. The research aimed to harness the potential of galgal peel and seeds for their phytochemical and essential oil content, demonstrated their utility as natural additives and preservatives in various food products. The Punjab cultivar, in particular, showed promising results across multiple parameters.ThesisItem Open Access Technologies for utilization of hull less barley for high fibre foods(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2021) Mahamudu Mohamed Sasamalo; Amarjeet KaurBarley (Hordeum vulgare) is the fourth significant cereal cultivated for human use next to wheat, rice and maize. The demands of barley production keep on increasing day to day due to its diverse utilities, nutritive value and ever-increasing demand. Keeping these in view Punjab Agricultural University has developed two hull less barley, variety PL 891 and BHS 352. These two hull less barley varieties PL 891 and BHS 352 were procured from Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics and were given treatments viz. germination, pressure cooking, acid and alkali and milled into flour. Milled sample were analyzed for chemical composition, functional and rheological characteristics. Barley flour was stored and estimated for shelf life. The effect of treatments for changes in functional, nutritional and antinutritional was studied. All the treatments showed increase in protein content, crude fiber and dietary fiber ranging from 12.5912.77%, 4.06-4.52% and 17.48-23.8%, respectively. β-glucan content improved after treatments; ranging from 4.02-5.05%. Processing caused 33.7-74.3%, 24.4-81.4 %, 75.7-84.6% and 43.173.1% reduction in antinutritional factors such as tannins, saponins, phytic acid and trypsin inhibitor, respectively. Notably, the mineral bioavailability as well the in-vitro protein digestibility and the antioxidant potential improved with the processing. Food products such as chapatti, flat bread and cookies were prepared by 30% incorporation level. Barley drink was prepared by using 100% roasted barley grains. Among the food products prepared, for chapatti all the treatments were accepted by the panelist with the highest overall acceptability of 8.50 from those prepared from germinated flour, for flat bread and cookies those prepared from alkali treated grains had highest overall acceptability of 8.55 and 8.50, respectively. Between hull less barley varieties, variety PL 891 was found better in preparation of high fiber chapatti, flat bread and cookies and variety BHS 352 was found better for preparation of fiber barley drink.ThesisItem Open Access Characterization of pea processing waste for use in food products(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2021) Bhullar, Harinderjeet Kaur; Amarjeet KaurUtilization of vegetable processing industrial waste remain unexplored, but their by-products have been recognized as potential source of nutrients. Thus, the present study focused on the characterization and utilization of the pea processing waste. Pea processing waste as pea peels and small peas were blanched at 80°C for 3 minutes in 5% sodium chloride solution prior to drying (60°C for 5 hours). Blanching significantly (p<0.05) reduced ascorbic acid content (22.81%), total soluble sugars, reducing sugars, non-reducing sugars by 3.44%, 4.76%, 2.28% respectively and antinutritional factors as tannins, phytates and saponins by 35.71%, 50% and 5% respectively, while enhanced the phytochemical composition and antioxidant activities (8.18%, 10.02%, 4.81% and 24.34% increase in DPPH radical scavenging activity, ABTS radical scavenging activity, ferric reducing antioxidant power and reducing power respectively). Blanched pea peel powder contained considerable amount of all essential and non-essential amino acids, micro and macro minerals and also exhibited good functional properties. Further, protein was extracted from fresh pea peel by isoelectric precipitation method at 9 solubilization pH and 4.5 precipitation pH. Protein content of extracted pea peel protein was found to be 83.25% which exhibited variety of polypeptide subunits of molecular weight between 25 and 75 kDa. The incorporation of pea peel powder into wheat flour decreases peak viscosity, final viscosity and dough stability but increases water absorption (%) and dough development time. Thermal analysis of refined wheat flour substituted with pea peel powder revealed the increase in the onset, endset and peak temperature and also rheological attributes as storage modulus (G´) and loss modulus (G´´) increased with the increase in level of incorporation in both frequency sweep and temperature sweep test. The blanched pea peel powder was further incorporated in bakery products (cookies), extruded products (noodles), fermented products (pizza base) and traditional product (chapatti). Based on the quality and sensorial attributes, incorporation level of 10%, 7.5%, 20% and 20% was found optimum in cookies, noodles, pizza base and chapatti respectively. Cookies and noodles remain acceptable beyond 4 months of storage at room temperature (30±2°C) whereas, pizza base was acceptable for 3 days at ambient conditions (25±2°C) and for 7 days at refrigeration conditions (4±2°C). Pea peel powder incorporation increased the fiber content in all prepared products (cookies, noodles, pizza base, chapatti). This study opens an avenue to boost nutritional value of food products with additional benefit of waste management and sustainable environment by utilizing pea peels.ThesisItem Open Access Characterization and valorization of super grains(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2021) Kataria, Ankita; Sharma, SavitaSuper grains are considered as treasure of nutrition and taste. Present research investigation was undertaken to characterize, process and evaluate the potential of super grains (quinoa, chia and teff) as ingredients for development of functional foods. The grains were subjected to thermal processing treatments (conventional heating, roasting, microwave processing and steaming) and fermentation to achieve an optimal balance of enhanced antioxidative and functional properties, and lower antinutritional factors to improve their potentiality for utilization. The effect of the aforesaid treatments was observed on the physico-chemical, functional, antinutritional and antioxidative (bioactive compounds and antioxidant activities) characteristics. Processed super grains exhibited increased crude protein and crude fat contents with reduced carbohydrate and crude fibre levels. Thermal processing and fermentation improved the hydration properties but the former significantly affected the emulsification characteristics. Phytic acid and enzymatic inhibitors reduced during thermal processing and fermentation. Saponins and tannins increased during fermentation of super grains. All the processes improved the levels of bioactive compounds, and therefore the antioxidant activities also enhanced. Microwave processing and fermentation were more effective compared to other processing techniques for obtaining the optimal balance of improved techno-biofunctionality perceived as enhancement in the antioxidant activity and improvement in the functional properties and reduction of antinutrients. These were evaluated for their morphology, rheological properties and fourier transform infra-red (FTIR) spectra which confirmed the structural, functional and compositional changes between the raw and processed super grains. Prebiotic assessment was performed by enumerating probiotic (Lactobacillus rhamnosus), enteric (Escherichia coli) and non-probiotic (Lactococcus spp.) organisms on the super grains and comparing their growth against glucose. Teff and chia exhibited prebiotic effect whereas quinoa exhibited a negative score but it enhanced the growth of Lactococcus. Raw and processed grains and flour were used in the preparation of traditional (pinni and bhujia), confectionary (nutri-bar), extruded (pasta) and fermented (simulated product and curd) products. Cooking quality of pasta was improved upon incorporation of the super grains. Sensory evaluation revealed the optimum substitution levels of super grains for all the products which were comparably acceptable with respect to control. Antioxidant assessment and FTIR spectra of simulated product showed that dairy protein (casein) could form stable complex with super grains which would be beneficial for preparation of fermented dairy products of high nutritional and functional characteristics. Therefore, it was concluded that raw and processed super grains could be utilized as potential ingredients for preparation of specialty foods.ThesisItem Open Access Development of processed products from green chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.)(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2021) Palwinder Kaur; Sukhpreet KaurThe present study was carried out to developed processed products from green chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) by utilizing canning and freezing technology. The effect of thermal processing and storage conditions (at ambient temperature for canned products and at -30°C for frozen products) on physico-chemical and phyto-chemical parameters of green chickpeas have been studied. The canning and freezing of green chickpeas were carried at standardized processing conditions. The calcium carbonate treatment effectively maintained the textural properties of green chickpeas during thermal processing. Citric acid effectively maintained the pH and color parameters of brine canned green chickpeas during processing and storage period. Thermal processing significantly (p≤0.05) reduced the phyto-chemical characteristics of green chickpeas as compared to freezing with average loss of 44.0% in total phenolics, 49.80% loss in ascorbic acid content, 42.5% loss in chlorophyll content and 30.5% loss in radical scavenging activity in developed products. During storage, products prepared from both technologies showed retention of phytochemicals with maximum retention observed in frozen products i.e. the average total phenolics, ascorbic acid and radical scavenging activity was retained by 87.0%, 76.50% and 74.0% respectively. Developed products were shelf stable for 6 months at ambient and freezing temperatures with maximum retention of nutritional and sensory characteristics. External and internal can conditions remained satisfactory during the storage period of six months. The condition of LDPE bags was also found satisfactory during low temperature conditions. This indicated that processing conditions adopted for canning and freezing were well maintained.ThesisItem Open Access Optimization of pearling conditions of quinoa cultivars for quality enhancement(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2022) Satinder Kaur; Gupta, AntimaQuinoa is crop, rich in nutritional quality especially protein not only in term of quality but quantity as well. Owing to anti-nutritional factors; particularly saponin, consumption of quinoa is still underutilization. Therefore, pearling treatment has been given which resulted in decrease of the anti-nutritional factors (saponin). In present study, quinoa cultivars were pearled for different time duration for 0, 20, 40, 60, 80, 100 sec. Pearling negatively influences the pearling efficiency and physical properties of quinoa cultivars. Optical microscopy observed the removal of outer layer with increase in pearling duration. Functional properties like water absorption capacity, oil absorption capacity, swelling power, Water solubility index, gelling power (p<0.05) decreased significantly with increase in pearling duration from 0 to100 sec. Paste clarity, freeze-thaw stability and least gelation concentration significantly (p<0.05) increased with progressed pearling duration. With pearling there is increase in percentage share in protein, fat and carbohydrates with reduced grain size. On the other hand, fibre, ash content decreased with successive removal of bran layer. Mineral composition was negatively influenced by pearling duration. Pearling positively influences the, emulsion capacity whereas negative influences on emulsion stability, foaming capacity and stability. Decreased level of bioactive profile (phenolic compounds and flavonoids) and antioxidant potential were owing to increased pearling duration. The saponin content decreased by 45-50 % after pearling. FT-IR spectra showed the presence of hydroxyl group, diketones, alkyl amine and ethers region. Colour analysis show increased brightening of grains with increase in pearling duration. On the basis of sensory evaluation, acceptability index increased with increase in pearling duration. From 40 sec. onwards there is no bitterness was observed. In order to maintain overall quality of grain 40 sec is concluded as optimum pearling level for removal of saponin content to acceptable limit.ThesisItem Open Access Development of functional food products utilizing purple wheat (Triticum aestivum) bran(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2022) Jhans, Bhupinder; Gurkirat KaurFunctional foods are the natural ingredients, fortified, enriched or value-added products which have health beneficial effects beyond their basic nutrition owing to the presence of bioactive compounds. Purple wheat is one such ingredient containing anthocyanins and other polyphenols compartmentalized in the outer regions of the grain. The present study aimed at assessing the functionality of purple wheat bran in different functional foods including pasta, bread and kulfi. Bran was incorporated at 0, 5, 10 and 20 % each in pasta and bread while at 0, 2, 4, 6 and 8 % in kulfi. Resultant products were investigated for compositional profile, functional properties, product quality parameters, tristimulus color profile, textural and structural properties. The results indicated that for pasta, enrichment with purple wheat bran caused significant reduction in minimum cooking time and firmness while due to the effect of fibre, water absorption, volume expansion, gruel solid losses were increased. These changes could be ascribed to higher fibre content interfering with protein matrix allowing accelerated movement of water. Molecular changes were also affected as found in FTIR and SEM analysis. Similarly in bread, purple wheat bran resulted in the dilution of the gluten networking affecting its strength, thus higher levels of bran influenced the loaf volume, height, texture, and other internal and external parameters. In case of kulfi, fibre showed binding ability; however, at 8 % level of bran, the texture was found to be grainy which is not a highly desirable property. All the products exhibited linear increment in the total phenolic content, total flavonoid content, total anthocyanin content and DPPH· radical scavenging activity. On the basis of organoleptic evaluation, pasta and bread enriched up to 15 % and kulfi up to 6 % purple wheat bran were most acceptable and exposed to storage studies. After assessing the biochemical indices of storage and overall acceptability, it was found that pasta was stable for 4 months, bread for 8 days and kulfi for 4 months of storage.ThesisItem Open Access Development of instant Khichdi mix using extrusion technology(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2022) Dolly; Baljit Singh“Khichdi” is an ancient Ayurvedic recipe which has been an integral part of Indian diet since ages. It is contemplated as a staple, well balanced and nutritionally wholesome meal that is an eminent source of nourishment in Ayurveda. Traditional foods like Khichdi are losing their place in our diet because of the lack in the availability of their pocket friendly convenience forms. Extrusion processing with versatile advantages is established as an attractive process that could be utilized for the instantization of such indigenous food products. So, the present research study was undertaken to explore the possibility of utilizing extrusion technology for the preparation of instant Khichdi mix in coherence with the standards outlined by Bureau of Indian standards, 1991. Seven improved and high yielding cultivars of rice (PR-114, PR-121, PR-122, PR-123, PR-124, PR-126 and PR-127) and one green gram cultivar (SML 668) were profiled in context of their dimensional, gravimetric, physico-chemical, technofunctional, and bio-functional and anti-oxidant properties. Followed by, the assessment of physicochemical, thermal, and rheological properties of rice cultivars with possible implications on their extrusion characteristics to screen them in context of their suitability for extrusion. Based on the investigated outcomes cultivar PR-122 was selected for the development of instant Khichdi mix. A response surface methodological approach was applied using Software Design expert version 13.0 (State-Ease Inc., Minneapolis, USA) to scrutinize the impact of various processing variables on process and product responses of instant rice and green gram. The indicated response ranges for optimization of instant rice were; Specific Mechanical Energy of (250-320 Wh/kg), expansion ratio of (2.90-3.20), bulk density of (207.46 – 392.78g/cc), water absorption index (6.52 – 8.41 g/g), water solubility index (26.984 – 33.803%), hydration power (250 – 305%), wettability (0.94 – 1.51min), hardness (159.74 – 165.72 N), breaking strength (42.78 – 51.32 N), L* value (65.04 – 75.12), a* value (2.7 – 3.14), and b* value (11.3 – 13.18). The optimized variables for instant rice and green gram were; feed moisture (1616.47 and 17-18%), screw speed (380-447 and 250-325rpm), and barrel temperature (139-150 and 147154ᵒC), respectively. Furthermore, in accordance with BIS 1991, the recipe for Khichdi was standardized (rice, green gram, edible fat i.e. ghee -8 g, salt - 4 g, cumin – 3.5 g, garlic – 2 g, and turmeric – 2.5 g). Five different blends having variable percentages of rice and green gram were prepared and analyzed for their physicochemical composition, In vitro starch, and protein digestibilities, bio-functional composition and antioxidant activities, microbial quality, and organoleptic quality. As per the results formulation with 60 % instant rice and 40% instant green gram was selected for a subsequent storage and shelf life study. Metallized polyester (90 μ) and polypropylene (75 μ) pouches were used for the comparative profiling of product’s shelf life (moisture content, water activity, free fatty acids, peroxide value, thio- barbituric acid values, and organoleptic quality (color, flavor, consistency, taste, and overall acceptance) for a period of 8 months. It was found that mixes packaged in metalized polyester were far more stable in comparison to polypropylene. Although the overall increase in peroxide value, fatty acid content and TBA values were nonsignificant, but the products in metallized polymer were found to be of superior in context of microbial and organoleptic qualities.ThesisItem Open Access Millets; antioxidant activity; functional properties; in vitro digestibility; fabricated grains; pasta(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2021) Sharma, Rajan; Sharma, SavitaThe term ‘nutri-cereals’ has been dedicated to ten cereal grains by Government of India owing to their agrarian and nutritional excellence. These are sustainable crops due to lower water requirement and adaption to harsh environmental conditions. These grains possess biologically active compounds which have several health beneficial properties due to antioxidative mechanisms. The present investigation was carried out with the objectives of characterization, processing and value addition of proso millet, foxtail millet, barnyard millet, white and red sorghum. The nutri-cereal grains were characterized for physical and biochemical properties. Further, these grains were subjected to different processing treatments viz. soaking (12 h at 25°C), germination (48 h at 25°C), fermentation (20 h at 38°C) and dual processing (germination and fermentation) at preliminary optimized conditions. Influence of aforesaid processing treatments was assessed on anti-nutritional compounds, bioactive constituents &anti-oxidant potential, techno-functional properties, in vitro starch & protein digestibility and structural-molecular features of nutri-cereal flours. There was significant reduction (p<0.05) in the anti-nutritional factors expect for saponins which increased during germination due to the fact that only those compounds which are plant reserve material are depleted while those involved in defense mechanism are increased during seed germination. Further, increase in total phenolic and flavonoid content corresponded to antioxidant activity which was mainly due to enzymatic degradation of cell wall constituents augmenting the release of bound polyphenols and their biosynthesis during given treatments. Similar changes were also observed in technological properties including water solubility, oil absorption, emulsification potential which increased during these treatments while water absorption, gel consistency and swelling power were affected due to molecular degradation of starch which limited their potential to retain water. Most predominant impact was observed for dual processed nutri-cereal flours in case of all bio-technofunctional parameters. Macromolecular degradation during germination and fermentation was evident from scanning electron micrographs and FTIR spectrum further revealed variation in molecular arrangement of starch and protein fractions. In vitro starch and protein digestibility were also found to increase dur to triggered enzymatic action and better access to substrate after germination and fermentation. Processed nutri-cereals were utilized to develop different food formulations including extruded products (fabricated grains, pasta), fermented product (curd) and indigenous products (premix, pancake, pinni and chappati). It was found that these nutri-cereals flours could be potentially utilized for different products to add nutritional and biological value without significant effect on the product quality and technological functionality. Organoleptic evaluation suggested that processed nutri-cereal products were acceptable with respect to visual, olfactory and textural attributes. It could thus be inferred that nutri-cereals (untreated and processed) are potential ingredients for value added products.
