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ThesisItem Open Access Development of ultrasonic bund detection system for header of combine harvester(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2022) Davinder Singh; Dogra, RituThere are appreciable physical losses to the header of combine harvester operating in field during harvesting. Thus, to reduce these losses during the harvesting process, it is desirable to effectively control the header height of the combine harvester. In present study, a soil bund detection system was developed for header of combine harvester using ultrasonic sensor and tested in field conditions. In laboratory, best ultrasonic sensor among five sensors (HC-SR04, US-100, JSN-SR04T, GY-US42, MB7092) was selected based on accuracy and response of the sensor operated for 27 treatments of soil bund height, sensor height and stubble density. Consequently, the soil bund detection system was developed using US100 sensor, Arduino UNO R3 microcontroller and two relays to control the actuator on prototype. The results showed that, during sensor selection, US-100 sensor has shown a maximum accuracy of 84.83% in BH3SH1SD1 treatment and maximum response of 91.38 readings/s at BH2SH2SD3. Furthermore, the developed system has shown a maximum accuracy of 88.89% and 85.58% without actuator in field and with actuator in laboratory conditions respectively. The highest response of 64.68 and 62.70 readings/s was recorded for system without actuator in field and with actuator in laboratory conditions respectively. The study provided us with insights that, increase in stubble density and sensor height had decreased the accuracy while increase in bund height had significantly increased the accuracy of the system. Moreover, increase in speed of vehicle had deteriorated the response of system while on increasing bund height and stubble density there was increase in the response.ThesisItem Embargo Design, development and evaluation of electronic metering mechanism for liquid urea application in straw mulch field.(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2022) Parveen; Khurana, RohinishCurrently, granular urea (most commonly used fertilizer) is applied through broadcasting by the farmers in the field. While surface application of urea not only contributed to higher losses and low use efficiency, applying liquid fertilizer below the soil surface gave better utilization by the plant and lower losses. A tractor operated liquid urea injector was developed for injecting measured quantity of liquid urea, under pressure, into the soil surface through a surface mulch of crop residue. The prototype was used to apply liquid fertilizer below soil surface under high mulched no till condition. The machine had five wheels, spaced 40 cm apart, and with periphery mounted 8 injectors. Pressurized liquid fertilizer was supplied to the central hub of the wheel and metered into soil using electronically controlled cut-off mechanism. The electronic mechanism consisted of limit switch, sensor, solenoid valve and relay whereas flow measurement mechanism consist of flow sensor, communication module, power module and display screen. Evaluation of developed machine was done in lab as well as field conditions. In lab conditions, the maximum discharge obtained at maximum operating pressure (P3) was 11.3 L/min. whereas minimum discharge at operating pressure P1 was 3.86 l/min. The field evaluation of the machine was conducted on two different locations having different type of soil using three forward speeds [F3 (1.8 km/h), F2 (2.7 km/h), F1 (3.6 km/h)]. The control was broadcasting method of applying urea to the crop which is used by the farmers. Combined optimum performance in soil S1 (sandy loam soil) and S2 (loamy soil) was obtained of machine at forward speed F2 (2.7 km/h) without affecting crop yield. At this operational parameter the application rate was 1090.85 l/ha and 1035.18 l/ha, field capacity 0.36 ha/h and 0.35 ha/h, and crop yield 39.50 q/ha and 39.63 q/ha, respectively for two soil types. Cost of operation of machine was found 1996.53 Rs/ha. The developed prototype has high field capacity of mechanically injecting liquid fertilizer in the crop root zone. This technology also contributes to the adoption of precision agriculture practices.ThesisItem Embargo Refinement of wheat straw harvester for paddy straw harvesting and bruising(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2022) Goel, Neetika; Singh, S.K.A wheat straw harvester was refined for chopping of paddy straw by replacing blower arrangement with two bruising cylinders and a concave. Knife guards of the cutter bar were removed and V-shaped serrated blades were fixed below cutting blades. The developed machine was operated at 2 levels of straw loads (6.25 t ha-1 and 8.58 t ha-1), 3 levels of cylinder speeds (640, 725 and 810 rpm) and 3 levels of forward speeds (2, 2.5 and 3.5 km h1). The percentage of chopped straw of size up to 12.5 cm, the weighted mean size of the chopped straw, mulch thickness and coefficient of variation of the uniformity of straw spread were in range of 71.29% to 86.40%, 5.76 cm to 8.12 cm, 5.17 cm to 6 cm and 20.29% to 22.17%, respectively under all the treatment combinations. The fuel consumption and field capacity of the machine were in range of 11.35 to 19.47 l ha-1 and 0.27 to 0.55 ha h-1, respectively. The treatment C3F1 (810 rpm and 2 km h-1) and C3F2 (810 rpm and 2.5 km h-1) at both straw loads gave better results in case of percentage distribution of chopped straw of size up to 12.5 cm and weighted mean size of chopped straw but the fuel consumption (l ha-1) in case of C3F2 was less as compared to C3F1. The percentage of the chopped straw of size up to 12.5 cm of refined machine was lower than the existed double cylinder paddy straw chopper and weighted mean size was higher. Fuel consumption of the refined machine was lower and field capacity was higher than an existed double cylinder paddy straw chopper.ThesisItem Embargo Effect of straw management practices on spectral based measurement of soil organic carbon(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2022) Joshi, Raghav; Bector, VishalSoil organic carbon (SOC) is an important soil health parameter, which helps in determining additional inputs to be added in soil. Various straw management practices improve soil organic carbon of fields. Determination of SOC in laboratory by chemical analysis is time, labor and resource consuming. VIS-NIR spectroscopy offers simple, accurate, quick and effective methods for measurement of soil organic carbon. Therefore, in the present study, spectral signatures were captured from soil samples of different straw management fields using spectroradiometer, with the aim of determining soil organic carbon. Straw managed fields, where same practices were followed from the last three years, used in the study were residue incorporated fields, conventional tillage fields and mulched fields. Partial least squares regression (PLSR), random forest regression (RF) and cubist regression model (CRM) were developed for estimation of soil organic carbon using spectral signatures. Predictive performances of the developed models were evaluated using different indices like coefficient of determination (R2), root mean square error (RMSE), mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) and ratio of performance to deviation (RPD). Spectral signatures for dried fields at depths 0-5 cm, 5-10 cm and 10-15 cm were then measured. The field data were fed into the developed models for prediction of SOC, and compared with the laboratory SOC values. Results showed that residue incorporated fields had highest mean SOC of 0.65 %, whereas mulched field had mean SOC of 0.61 % and conventional tillage field had mean SOC of 0.55 %. While checking the model performances in validation, CRM obtained highest linear R2 (0.76) and RPD values (2.02); with PLSR obtaining R2 as 0.74 and RPD as 1.98; and RF obtaining R2 as 0.63 and RPD as 1.52. For field data, highest accuracy was attained for residue incorporated fields at 5-10 cm depth when PLSR model was used for prediction.ThesisItem Open Access Design, development and evaluation of baling attachment with self propelled combine harvester(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2022) Ajaib Singh; Singh, Shashi KumarPaddy straw burning is the major issue of Punjab and its adjoining states. The problem of paddy residue burning can be reduced if the loose paddy residue coming out from the conventional combine harvester is managed successfully. A baling attachment with the self propelled combine harvester was designed and developed. Performance of the baling attachment with the combine harvester was evaluated at two levels of forward speed (F1 = 2.0 and F2 = 2.5 km h-1), three levels of belt conveyor speed (B1 = 1.15, B2 = 1.40 and B3 = 1.50 m s-1) in two paddy varieties (V1 = PR 126 and V2 = PR 122). The best operational parameters on the basis of less straw walker and sieve loss were F1B1, F1B2 and F1B3 and on the basis of less fuel consumption (l ha-1) and higher field capacity, the better operational parameters were F2B1, F2B2 and F2B3. The samples of untreated paddy straw, urea fermented baled and stacked paddy straw were analyzed for proximate principles (dry matter, total ash and crude protein) and cell wall constituents (acid detergent fibre, neutral detergent fibre and acid detergent lignin). All the parameters of the proximate principles and cell wall constituents of urea treated paddy straw (both in stack and bale form) were significantly different from the untreated paddy straw. The total income from the fermented bales formed by the baling attachment with self propelled combine harvester and bales from the conventional baling system came out to be Rs. 10046.00 ha-1 and Rs. 13065.10 ha-1, respectively.ThesisItem Open Access Studies on tractor operated back-pack type axial flow combine harvester for mung bean (Vigna radiata (L.))(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2021) Talukdar, Dipika; Dogra, BaldevMung bean (Vigna radiata (L.)) alternatively known as green gram is an ancient and popular pulse crop in India. Pulses serve as a major source of dietary protein of vegetarians. Cultivation of summer mung bean will also help in reducing the rate of depletion of natural resources, which is a prime concern in Punjab at present. Efficient mechanized harvesting is one of the constraints in the adoption of summer mung bean. Grain losses while combine harvesting of mung bean can be reduced by using an axial flow combine harvester. Recently low cost tractor operated back-pack type axial flow combine harvesters have been introduced in local market. Attachment and detachment of tractor is much easier than tractor on top combine harvester. These have the potential to reduce harvesting losses during harvesting. Performance of this machine was evaluated at three forward speeds (FS1=2.1, FS2=3.0 and FS3=4.8 kmh-1), three cylinder speeds (PS1=11.08, PS2=13.16 and PS3=14.79 ms-1) and days (2, 4 and 6) after last irrigation. The selected dependent variables were threshing efficiency, broken percentage, cleaning efficiency and shattering losses. The results indicated that the threshing efficiency increased with increase in days after last irrigation and cylinder peripheral speed, whereas it decreased with increase in forward speed. Similarly, the grain breakage increased with increase cylinder peripheral speed and days after last irrigation, however it decreased with increase in forward speed. The cleaning efficiency increased with increase in forward speed, whereas it decreased with increase in cylinder peripheral speed and days after last irrigation. The non-collectable loss increased with increase in forward speed and days after last irrigation, however, cylinder peripheral speed did not affect it. The shattering loss increased with increase in forward speed and days after last irrigation. However, cylinder peripheral speed did not affect it. The best combination of operational variables for threshing operation was DAI3PS3FS2 i.e. six days after last irrigation, at cylinder peripheral speed of 14.79 ms-1 and at forward speed of 3.0 kmh-1. At this combination, threshing efficiency, non-collectable losses, grain breakage and cleaning efficiency were 99.28%, 4.53%, 2.96% and 95.89%, respectively. The tractor operated backpack type axial flow combine harvester saved 90.26% labour cost and 53.71% cost of harvesting compared to combination of spike tooth type thresher and manual harvesting.ThesisItem Open Access Investigations about different parameters to reduce drift during spraying with drone(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2021) Dua, Aashvi; Chhuneja, N KUAV sprayers have gained popularity because of various benefits in the agricultural field. However, low capacity of the tank requires low volume spraying using nozzles that produce small droplets. Also, fine droplets tend to increase drift risk and larger droplets are helpful in mitigating drift, therefore, the study was planned to investigate different design and operations parameters of selected nozzles to reduce drift during spraying with a drone. The nozzle tips (extended range flat fan spray tip, standard flat fan spray tip, and turbo flat fan spray tip) were tested at three levels of operating pressure (0.96, 1.38 and 1.63 kg cm-2) and height (2, 3 and 4 m) in simulated field conditions for determining effective swath width, deposition characteristics and drift potential. The optimum value of all three nozzles were found at an operating pressure of 1.38 kg cm-2 and flying height of 3 m in simulated field conditions. Also, drift and penetration in the paddy and moong field were measured with 3 levels of forward speed (2, 3 and 4 m s-1). One optimum combination of nozzle type (extended range flat fan spray tip), operating pressure (1.38 kg cm-2) and flying height (3 m) were selected from the previous experiment and kept constant while recording observations in the crops. It was found that at lowest forward speed of 2 m s-1, spray coverage was recorded with highest value at upper side of top position in both crops and their values were 24.22% in paddy and 17.88% in moong. Horizontal drift remained the lowest at 3 m s-1 forward speed and vertical drift increased with the increase in forward speed of drone in both the selected crops. The actual field capacity of drone spraying system was found to be 1.44 ha h-1, 2.00 ha h-1 and 2.91 ha h-1 at the forward speed of 2, 3 and 4 m s-1 in the paddy field. The cost of operation of drone spraying system was Rs 365.03/ ha, Rs 262.83/ ha and Rs 180/ ha at the forward speed of 2, 3 and 4 m s-1.ThesisItem Open Access Design, Development and Evaluation of Paddy Transplanter for Wash Root Nursery(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2022) Singh, Neeraj Kumar; Narang, Mahesh KumarA tractor operated paddy transplanter for wash root nursery was designed, developed, and evaluated. The paddy transplanter is PTO driven and hitched to a tractor three-point linkage. This machine can be operated by 35 hp or above tractor. The machine consists of main frame, gear boxes, chain-sprockets, major & sub shafts, seedling trays and nine transplanting mechanisms. The planting mechanism to delivers seedling from seedling tray and place it into ground by plunger which was operated via cam. A four-bar extended arm mechanism was selected, because the working end oscillates under the designed path by converting the rotary motion which was initially supplied to the smallest link. The power from tractor PTO is transmitted to planting mechanism through a series of connecting shafts, chain-sprockets and gear boxes mounted on main frame. Forward speed (1.5, 2.2 and 3.3 km/h), mechanism speed (200 & 254 RPM) and age of nursery (25, 35 and 45 days) was selected as independent parameters whereas the missing index, numbers of plants per hill, damage percentage and plant to plant spacing were observed for evaluating the developed transplanter under laboratory condition. As the speed index increases, the plant to plant spacing and missing index increase from 123.1 mm to 240.4 mm and 31.11 percent to 64.44 percent, respectively. The number of plants per hill and the damage percentage both decreased as the nursery grew older, from 4.47 to 2.20 plants and 6.67% to 2.22%, respectively. Forward speed of 1.5 km/h and mechanism speed of 254 RPM was selected for field evaluation. The age of nursey (25, 35 and 45) was selected as independent parameter for field evaluation, whereas missing index, multiple index, damage percentage, plant to plant spacing, planting efficiency, field capacity, fuel consumption, cost of operation and yield were selected as dependent parameters and compared to manual transplanting (control). Significant difference was observed in missing index, multiple index, damage percentage, and field capacity at different ages of nursery, however plant to plant spacing, planting efficiency and yield had no significant difference at different ages of nursery. The observed missing index, damage percentage, plant to plant spacing were found higher and multiple index, planting efficiency and yield were found lower as compared to control. The best operating parameter found as forward speed of 1.5 km/h and mechanism speed of 254 RPM for 35 days of nursery. At these operation parameters, missing index was 31.18%, multiple index and damage percentage 4.40%, plant to plant spacing 142.5 mm, planting efficiency 60.75%, field capacity 0.29 ha/h, fuel consumption 4.13 l/h, cost of operation 9512.60 Rs/ha and yield 4.75 t/ha.ThesisItem Open Access Development and Evaluation of a solar photo voltaic assisted sprayer mounted on a self propelled carrier(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2021) Dhar, Tushar; Rajesh SoniIndia is gifted with a vast potential in solar energy. Punjab has an average annual solar radiation is about 5.32 kWh/m?/day. This can be utilized to produce electricity using solar photo voltaic (SPV) system for running various farm devices/operations. A SPV assistedsprayermounted on a self propelledcarrier wwas developed which uses solar energy to charge the battery which simultaneouslyoperates the spray pump while the carrier was engine operated. Selection of solar panels was based on the solarradiation availabilityduringthe winter season in Ludhiana, Punjab. Hollow cone nozzles were selected for the sprayer. This was testedat pressures (2, 3 and 4 kg/cm) and heights (45, 50 and 55 cm) in a patternator for selection of best operational parameters for evaluation of field and spray parameters. The sprayer was operated at two forward speeds (0.6 and 0.7 m/s) in wheat. The application rate of the sprayerwas 156.23 1Vha at forward speed of 0.6 m/s whichwas within the recommended application rate for aphids in wheat. The actualfieldcapacitywas 0.49 ha/h and 0.59 ha/h at forward speeds of 0.6 m/s and 0.7 m/s respectively. The field efficiency of the developed sprayer was about 75-80%o. Spray parameters were determined at two different locations of the canopy(top and middle). Smaller droplets were observed at higherpressure. Uniformity coefficient variedfrom 1.59-2.32. Pressure and forward speed had a significant effect on the droplet density. The droplet density and spray coverage area was lesserat the underside of the leavescomparedto the upperside of leaves. Ground losses decreasedwith the increase in nozzle pressure.
