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ThesisItem Open Access Study on potentials of farm income in Punjab(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2011) Sachdeva, Jatinder; Sharma, J. L.The study was undertaken with a view to identify the potentials of increasing farm income in Punjab. The study was conducted in all the three agro-climatic zones of Punjab to make it representative for the state. The primary data were collected from a sample of 300 farmers pertaining to the agricultural year 2008-09. The techniques of multiple regression analysis and linear programming were used to analyze the data. The production function analysis revealed that human labour employed, availability of irrigation machinery and farm size were the most important determinants of the gross value of produce from crop production. Whereas, in the case of dairy farming quantity of concentrates fed and expenditure on veterinary care emerged as important determinants of the gross value of milk produced. The technical efficiency of the farms of Central Plain Zone (Zone-II) was the highest followed by South-western Zone (Zone-III) and Sub-mountainous Zone (Zone-I). This can be attributed to favourable soil, water and climatic conditions and better access to research and extension agencies in Zone-II. The improved plans developed at two levels of technology increased the returns to fixed farm resources ranging from 2.19 to 3.86 per cent in Improved Plan-I and 13.95 to 17.06 per cent in Improved Plan-II on farms of different size categories in the state. The findings of the study revealed that by developing irrigation facilities, providing training for vegetable cultivation and short term credit facilities will help in increasing farm income especially in Sub-mountainous Zone. The development of short duration varieties of oilseeds and pulses which can easily fit in the paddy-wheat rotation will also help in increasing the income of farmers. The rational use of inputs like fertilizers and insecticides-pesticides helps in decreasing variable cost and ultimately increases the farm income. To make the agricultural system competitive and to increase the income of farmers, efforts should be made by all the interest groups involved in the farm sector.ThesisItem Open Access EVALUATION OF INSECTICIDE RESISTANCE PROFILE IN Spodoptera litura (FABRICIUS) POPULATIONS THROUGH BIOLOGICAL, BIOCHEMICAL AND MOLECULAR DIAGNOSIS(PAU Ludhiana, 2013) Harpreet Kaur Cheema; B. K., KANGEvaluation of insecticide resistance profile in Spodoptera litura (Fabricius) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) populations was done through biological, biochemical and molecular diagnosis. Population from Sangrur was found to be the least susceptible for most of the insecticides, except for chlorpyriphos, chlorantraniliprole and novaluron which were least toxic to population from Bathinda, and pyridalyl which was least toxic to population from Ludhiana. Population from Hoshiarpur was found to be the most susceptible for all insecticides except acephate and pyridalyl to which Bathinda population was most susceptible. Thiodicarb among the conventional group of insecticides and chlorantraniliprole among the newer insecticides were found to be the most toxic against all the test populations. The synergistic effect of TPP (6.16- fold), PBO (3.72- fold) and DEM (1.73- fold) in the least susceptible population suggested the involvement of esterases and mixed function oxidases in providing resistance to various insecticides. Synergistic effect of PBO (6.21- fold) on the fenvalerate- selected population followed by TPP (5.74- fold) and DEM (1.89- fold) indicated the possible role of mixed function oxidases, esterases and to some extent glutathione S- transferases in imparting resistance to pyrethroids in S. litura. Multiple detoxification enzymes and AChE insensitivity were found to be involved in imparting resistance in S. litura towards various insecticides. Selection with fenvalerate increased the activities of MFOs, esterases and GST by 1.84, 1.73 and 1.3 times in S. litura proving their role in pyrethroid-mediated resistance. Activities of MFO, esterases and insensitivity of AChE can be used as biochemical tools for monitoring insecticide resistance in S. litura. RAPD markers established the presence of inter and intra population variations that might be related to insecticide resistance. Alignment between COI sequences of fenvalerate- selected (SGR-Sel) and susceptible types (SGR) identified existence of a single base/ nucleotide polymorphism at position 421 represented by substitution of T in SGR-Sel with C in SGR type. Based on this polymorphism, COI based specific primers were developed, tested and validated for differentiating amongst these S. litura types.ThesisItem Restricted UTILIZATION OF SPICES AND HERBS FOR IMPROVEMENT OF QUALITY AND SHELF LIFE OF BAKERY PRODUCTS(PAU Ludhiana, 2011) Gurpreet Kaur Dhillon; Amarjeet KaurPresent study was aimed to minimize the use of chemical preservatives by replacing them wholly or partially with natural preservatives i.e. spices and herbs in bakery products, without altering the desired quality attributes. Powdered spices and herbs were evaluated for antioxidant activity and total phenolic content. The inhibitory effects of spices and herbs on Aspergillus, Eurotium and Penicillium were evaluated in vitro using PDA (potato dextrose agar) media. Incorporation of spices and herbs modified the farinographic curve characteristic and pasting properties of the dough. Quality and shelf life of bakery products i.e. bread and muffins by incorporating spices and herbs (cinnamon, clove, garlic, oregano and thyme) in bread and muffins at (1, 2, 3 and 4 % level) alone or in combinations were studied. Based on the bread and muffins making and organoleptic quality the level of incorporation of spices and herbs to be used in the standard recipe were selected. Bread with acceptable product quality and organoleptic properties were prepared after incorporation of spices and herbs (2 % cinnamon, 1 % clove, 1 % garlic, 2 % oregano and 2 % thyme) and their combinations i.e. cinnamon : oregano – 2:2, cinnamon : thyme – 2:2, clove : oregano – 1:2. Muffins were made after incorporation of spices and herbs (2 % cinnamon, 1 % clove, 2 % oregano and 2 % thyme) and their combinations were for cinnamon:clove – 2:1, cinnamon : thyme – 2:2 and oregano: thyme – 2:2 with very good product quality and organoleptic properties. Bread prepared after incorporation of best combination of spices and herbs were packed in LDPE and PP and stored under ambient and refrigerated condition for 10 days to study the shelf life of product by estimating periodic changes in moisture content, water activity, free fatty acid, peroxide value, pH, texture and visual mold growth. Spiced bread had a shelf life of 8 and 10 days at ambient and refrigerated temperature, respectively. Similarly, muffins prepared from flour supplemented with best combination of spices and herbs and were packed in LLDPE and stored under ambient and refrigerated conditions for one month to find out shelf life of the product. Muffins prepared from spices and herbs remained acceptable till 28 days at ambient condition and 35 days when stored under refrigerated condition. Combinations of best levels of spices and herbs along with 0.1 per cent calcium propionate or potassium sorbate enhanced the shelf life of bread from 3-4 days to 10-12 days and of muffins from 14 days to 35 days at room temperature.ThesisItem Restricted A STUDY OF ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE OF THE SELECTED STATE AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITIES IN INDIA(PAU Ludhiana, 2013) Sayanika Borah; Kiranjot, SidhuThe study was conducted in four state agricultural universities of India viz. PAU Punjab (North); ANGRAU, Andhra Pradesh (South); AAU, Assam (East) and MPAUT, Rajasthan (West) to study the variations in perceptions of the faculty and administrators regarding the importance of dimension of organizational climate along with their perception of prevailing and expected organizational climate. The data collected from the 216 faculty members and 60 administrators using a scale developed on 13 dimensions viz. communication, management of rewards, interpersonal relationships, control and supervision, orientation, decision making, leadership, policies and rules, innovation, physical facilities, team work, monetary gains and accountability/ evaluation revealed that communication followed by leadership, team work and physical facilities were the most important dimensions according to the faculty who ranked monetary gains, accountability/ evaluation, management of rewards and control and supervision as least important. Administrators ranked communication, leadership and decision making at the top and innovation, monetary gains and management of rewards at the least important. There was a good agreement between faculty and administrator of all selected SAU’s as well as between SAU’s in assigning ranks. Faculty perceived highest gap between the prevailing and expected climate with regard to orientation and monetary gains and lowest in management of rewards and interpersonal relationship, whereas administrators found it to be highest in monetary gains and lowest in decision making and communication. Age, income, job experience and training acquired were significantly related with the perception. Faculty suggested improvement in communication as one of the important ways to improve organizational climate.ThesisItem Restricted MOLECULAR CHARACTERIZATION OF Triticum durum – Aegilops speltoides INTROGRESSION LINES AND EVALUATION FOR THERMO–TOLERANCE AND ITS COMPONENTS(PAU Ludhiana, 2013) Zewdu Teshome; Parveen, ChhunejaBackcross introgression lines (BILs) developed from crosses of Triticum durum –Aegilops speltoides were used to identify quantitative trait loci (QTLs) associated with heat tolerance.Three hundred lines in the first season and 100 selected lines in two consecutive cropping seasons were grown under normal sown and late sown conditions. Membrane thermostability, chlorophyll content (CH), canopy temperature and triphenyl tetrazolium chloride (TTC) tests have been used for identifying genetic variability within genotypes.Yield and yield related traits were also recorded. In all the traits variations between BILs in both normal sown and late sown conditions have been observed. Early maturity, shorter height and reduced tillering were recorded in late sown conditions which could be due to terminal heat stress. Out of 386 markers tested, 76 markers (19.7%) showed polymorphism between the parental lines. These polymorphic markers were used to genotype 100 selected BILs. Graphical genotyping showed introgressed regions in all 14 chromosomes of the recipient parent with overall 14.2% introgression.Single marker analysis (SMA) revealed that six markers (Xgwm293, Xgwm565, Xgwm148, Xwmc269, Xgwm299 and Xwmc603) were significantly associated with spikelets/spike at LOD values ranging from 6.1-10.3 and phenotypic contribution of 18.5-44.3%.Similarly, markers Xgwm293,Xwmc269, Xgwm565, Xgwm471, Xgwm148, Xgwm299, Xwmc603, Xwmc31, Xcfd6 and Xcfa2278 were linked to thousand grain weight. One marker Xcfd60 revealed association to TTC in normal sown BILs with LOD value of 3.1 and PVE of 16.1%. Four markers Xgwm293,Xgwm148, Xcfd60 and Xwmc269 showed linkage with CH with varying LOD score and PVE%. SMA also identified eight markers (Xgwm293, Xgwm565, Xgwm471, Xgwm148, Xgwm299, Xwmc603, Xcfd6 and Xwmc269) linked to days to flowering and four markers viz, Xgwm293, Xgwm471, Xgwm299 and Xwmc603 showed association to days to maturity with LOD value higher than the threshold. Plant height was also linked to four marker loci (Xgwm471, Xgwm148, Xgwm565 and Xwmc603) in average environment and stay green trait was linked to Xgwm148, Xwmc269, Xgwm471 and Xwmc269 with LOD score in the range of2.6 -3.4 and PVE of 12.6-15.9%. Additive QTL analysis identified that most of the traits were contributed from the donor parent and a number of markers identified in SMA were validated in additive QTL analysis also.ThesisItem Open Access UPTAKE AND METABOLISM OF IMIDACLOPRID IN SUGARCANE AND ITS PERSISTENCE IN SOIL(PAU Ludhiana, 2012) Smriti Sharma; Balwinder SinghThe uptake and metabolism of imidacloprid in sugarcane leaves and soil were studied following application of imidacloprid @ 20 and 80 g a.i. ha-1. Samples of sugarcane leaves and soil were collected at various time intervals and analyzed by using High Performance Liquid Chromatograph (HPLC) and confirmed by Liquid Chromatograph –Mass Spectrometry (LCMS). Total residues of imidacloprid and its metabolites were found to be 4.97 and 12.99 mg kg-1 in leaves collected 7 days after the application of imidacloprid @ 20 and 80 g a.i. ha-1 respectively. These residues declined to below the detectable limit at 90 days after the application at both the dosages. The samples of sugarcane juice and trash did not reveal the presence of imidacloprid residues at harvest. In soil samples total residues of imidacloprid were found to be 4.29 and 7.81 mg kg-1 collected 7 days after the application @ 20 and 80 g a.i. ha-1 respectively. These residues could not be detected at 90 days after the application at both the dosages. In laboratory experiment, residues of imidacloprid in sandy loam, loamy sand and clay loam after 7 day of its application @ 100 mg kg-1 were found to be 69.74, 72.66 and 77.20 mg kg-1, respectively. The persistence of imidacloprid was almost similar in all type of soils. In sterilized soil, Bacillus alkaninitricus was found to be more efficient than B. aerophilus and their consortium while, in unsterilized soil, bacterial consortium proved to be more efficient in imidacloprid degradation.ThesisItem Open Access MORPHOLOGICAL AND MOLECULAR CHARACTERIZATION OF GERMPLASM AND F1 HYBRIDS.(PAU Ludhiana, 2013) Daljinder Singh; M. I. S, . GillThe present investigation entitled “Morphological and molecular characterization of guava (Psidium guajava L.) germplasm and F1 hybrids” was conducted during years 2010 to 2013 at P.A.U., Ludhiana and Regional Fruit Research Station, Bahadurgarh. Thirty five guava genotypes grafted on seedling rootstocks were evaluated for tree, vegetative, reproductive, fruit and seed characters based on UPOV descriptors. Statistically significant difference for all the traits was observed among tested genotypes. Among components of genetic variation, phenotypic and genotypic coefficient of variation for different traits ranged from 7.26 and 6.95 to 35.00 and 33.11 %, respectively. Divergence analysis based on D2 statistic grouped the tested genotypes into six clusters with variable number of genotypes in each cluster, indicating the presence of genetic diversity in them. Cluster I, cluster IV, cluster V and cluster VI showed intra cluster distance of 55.12, 55.40, 50.70 and 61.84 respectively, indicating sufficient dissimilarity among genotypes for morphological features. Molecular characterization using 80 SSR primer pairs was done enabling cluster analysis of 43 guava genotypes. Among the primers, 78 markers amplified 258 alleles across the 43 genotypes with an average of 3.25 alleles per locus. The highest number of seven alleles per locus was amplified by mPgCIR 32, followed by six alleles per locus by mPgCIR98. The power of discrimination was found to be least (0.00) for markers mPgCIR251 and mPgCIR 414 and highest (0.84) for markers mPgCIR137. Values of expected heterozygosity ranged from 0.00 in monomorphic locus (mPgCIR251 and 414) to maximum 0.79 for locus mPgCIR32, with an average 0.47 expected heterozygosity. Estimated genetic dissimilarity coefficient ranged from minimum 0.020 (between genotypes 14-10 and 12-11) to 0.590 (between One Kg and Portugal) with an average dissimilarity of 0.322 across all the genotypes. Cluster analysis on the basis of molecular analysis classified the guava genotypes into two major groups having 3 and 40 genotypes each. The dendrogram generated using SSR markers along with the phenotypic data will be useful for choosing the diverse parents for further guava breeding programmes. A total of nine F1 hybrids were generated and vegetative parameters were recorded in different hybrids to distinguish them, as well as SSR markers were also used to confirm the parentage of these hybrids.ThesisItem Open Access Osmo-mechanical dehydration of Fig (Ficus carica L.) and its value addition.(PAU Ludhiana, 2012) Rajneesh Kant; Jarnail SinghThe fresh fully matured fig fruits were procured from markets, orchard of PAU Ludhiana and Dera Baba Jaimal Singh, Beas, Punjab. The detailed nutritional, mechanical, physical and colour analysis of fresh fig fruit were carried out before undergoing osmo-mechanical drying. Osmotic dehydration followed by hot air drying and only hot air drying were carried out under different process parameters. The independent process variable was temperature for hot air drying. Concentration of osmotic agent, temperature of osmotic agent and fruit to solution ratio were independent variables for osmotic dehydration. Levels of temperature for hot air drying were 60, 70, and 80OC. Levels of concentration and temperature of osmotic agent (sucrose solution) were 50, 60, and 70OBx and 60, 70 and 80OC respectively. Similarly levels of fruit to solution ratio were 1:4, 1:5 and 1:6 (w/w basis). Process variables were standardized by carrying out experimental observations and score rating of hedonic scale. Response surface methodology was also adopted for optimization of these process variables. Water loss, solute gain and overall acceptability were response variables under central composite face centered design. The selected process conditions viz. concentration, temperature and fruit to solution ratio for desired product were 60OBx, 70OC and 1:5 respectively. Kinetics of hot air drying and osmotic dehydration were studied. Variations in drying rates and moisture content were investigated. The desired product was observed to be in the range of 18-20% moisture content. Sensory, nutritional and colour analysis of the osmo-mechanically dried fig slices was carried out during storage of six months under ambient conditions. The fig slices were found acceptable. The microbial count, water activity and color was comparable to market product and safe for human consumption. Protein, carbohydrates, and total fat were observed as 3.4g, 65.2 g, 1.2 g per 100g respectively. These remained intact as for fresh fig fruit these values were 1.50g,18.50g and 0.20g respectively. Vitamin A was observed as 180 IU and150 IU for dried and fresh fig respectively.ThesisItem Open Access MUSCLE FATTY ACID PROFILES OF SOME WILD FISH SPECIES AND ENHANCEMENT OF OMEGA-3 FATTY ACIDS THROUGH DIETARY MANIPULATION IN Cyprinus carpio (Linn.)(PAU Ludhiana, 2012) Jyotika; H.S., SehgalThe study has been conducted on i) seasonal variations in muscle total lipid content (MTLC), fatty acid profiles and proximate composition of two wild fish species, Puntius conchonius (Hamilton-Buchanan) and P. sarana (Hamilton-Buchanan), to determine their nutritional status and ii) enhancement of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), considered vital for human health, through dietary manipulation in a cultured carp species, Cyprinus carpio (Linn.). Both the wild species were found to be rich in crude protein, which varied between 15.74% to 18.18% in P. conchonius and 15.15% to 18.04% in P. sarana during different seasons. Based on their MTLC (2.36% to 4.89%), both the species could be categorized as lean or low-fat fishes. However, the MTLC was higher and the moisture, ash and carbohydrate contents of the fishes were comparable with many other freshwater fish species. The fishes had good PUFA content. Omega-3 (n-3) PUFAs were 2.78% in P. sarana and 2.21% in P. conchonius. Total n-6 PUFAs were 4.56% in P. sarana and 4.20% in P .conchonius, and the values of n-3/n-6 ratio were 0.73 and 0.60 in P. sarana and P. conchonius, respectively. Linolenic acid formed 1.64% of the total n-3 PUFAs in P. sarana and 1.02% in P. conchonius. EPA constituted 0.31% in P. conchonius and 0.24% in P. sarana and DHA 0.75% in P. sarana and 0.69% in P.conchonius. Stearic acid was the dominant saturated fatty acid (SFA) forming 28.75% of the total SFAs in P. sarana and 28.10% in P. conchonius. The MTLC and n-3 PUFAs of C. carpio (Linn.), a cultured carp species could be enhanced through dietary manipulation. The MTLC could be increased from 1.44% in fish fed traditional diet with no flaxseed oil to 2.83% in fish fed 30% flaxseed oil diet. Similarly, the total n-3 PUFAs could be enhanced from 10.38% in fishes fed 0% flaxseed oil diet for 90 days to 18.67% in fishes fed 30% flaxseed oil diet for 60 days and 30% fish oil diet for 30 days.