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ThesisItem Embargo Standardizing supplemental lighting for improved strawberry cultivation in soilless media under protected cultivation(Punjab Agricultural University, 2023) Pardeep Kaur; Mahesh Chand SinghA study was carried out at Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana to standardize the supplemental lighting for improved strawberry cultivation in soilless media inside a naturally ventilated greenhouse. For supplemental lighting, full spectrum LED grow lights were used. The experimental treatments included three levels of supplemental lighting viz. 235, 169, 132 μmol m-2s-1, and 3 levels of photoperiod viz. 12, 14 and 16-h. The treatments were replicated thrice in a factorial CRD layout. After transplanting, the strawberry plants were fertigated with fresh nutrient solution throughout the growing season using drip irrigation system. Electrical conductivity and pH of the nutrient solution were maintained in the range 1.5-2.7 dSm-1 and 5.5-6.5, respectively. Crop related data (plant height, leaf chlorophyll content, leaf area index, etc.) were recorded at weekly interval. Climatic data (mainly light, temperature and relative humidity) were recorded continuously at a 5-minute interval through development of a low-cost IoT-based real-time climate monitoring system. The fruit related data (fruit diameter, fruit weight, number of fruits and yield per plant) were recorded at the time of each harvesting. The quality parameters viz. titratable acidity, total soluble solids, total sugar, reducing sugar, ascorbic acid and phenol content were analysed twice in the growing season (7th February and 25th March, 2022). The performance of strawberry was significantly affected by time-differential supplemental lighting in terms of its effects on different plant growth parameters, fruit parameters and yield. The supplemental lighting of 132 μmol m-2s-1 for a photoperiod of 16-h recorded the highest fruit yield of 450.0 g/plant with an average value of 408.9 g/plant. The results indicated a significant increase in yield, WUE and FUE of Camarosa strawberry with decrease in supplemental lighting from 235 to 132 μmol m-2s-1 and an increase in photoperiod from 12 to 16-h. The average benefit-cost ratio (B:C) was obtained as 2.35 and 2.27 with and without subsidy, respectively. Supplemental lighting of 132 μmol m-2s-1 for a photoperiod of 16-h resulted in highest B:C value of 2.74 with 50% subsidy and 2.68 without subsidy. Thus, subjecting strawberry plants to light in the range of 362.5-430.6 μmol m-2s-1 including supplemental light of 132 μmol m-2s-1 for about 16 hours in a day is desired to record the optimal plant growth, fruit yield and quality of camarosa strawberry, when cultivated in soilless media inside a naturally ventilated greenhouse.ThesisItem Unknown Evaluation of tapering fertigation schedules for dripirrigated potato crop(Punjab Agricultural University, 2023) Koundal, Nitesh; Thaman, SudhirA research experiment was carried out at University Seed Farm Ladhowal of Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, during the Rabi season of 2021-2022 to study the effect of basal fertilizer dose and tapering fertigation schedules on growth and yield attributes of the drip-irrigated potato crop. The experiment was laid out in randomized block design (RBD), consisting of seven treatments with three replications. All treatments had the equivalent recommended dose of fertilizer (RDF), i.e. N: P: K :: 150: 50: 50 kg ha-1. The treatments comprised seven fertilizer application schedules, viz. T1: FYM + 25% RDF as basal + fertigation in 18 tapering splits with 75% RDF, tapering at a difference of 0.05X; T2: FYM + 25% RDF as basal + fertigation in 18 tapering splits with 75% RDF, tapering at a difference of 0.1X; T3: FYM + 25% RDF as basal + fertigation in 18 tapering splits with 75% RDF, tapering at a difference of 0.15X; T4: FYM + fertigation in 18 tapering splits with 100% RDF, tapering at a difference of 0.05Y; T5: FYM + fertigation in 18 tapering splits with 100% RDF, tapering at a difference of 0.1Y; T6: FYM + fertigation in 18 tapering splits with 100% RDF, tapering at a difference of 0.15Y; T7: FYM + fertigation with 20 % RDF in 7 equal splits + 80% RDF in 13 equal splits (Control). X and Y are 18 equal splits of 75% and 100% RDF, respectively. The same irrigation depth was applied to all treatments on the basis of the Penman-Monteith method. The data of the field experiment was analysed statistically using CPCS1 software of the Department of Mathematics and Statistics, PAU, Ludhiana. Different tapering fertigation schedules had a significant impact on yield parameters, viz., average tuber weight and tuber yield per plant. The treatment T2 recorded the highest average tuber weight (28.4 g) and tuber yield per plant (317.6 g). Tuber yield in treatment T2 (24.4 t ha-1) recorded significantly higher tuber yield than other treatments except for treatment T1. The tuber yield in treatment T2 was 15.2% higher than in treatment T7 (control).ThesisItem Open Access Structural Stability Analysis of Naturally Ventilated Polyhouses(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2021) Lovepreet Singh; Kaushal, ArunThe research work on structural stability analysis of naturally ventilated polyhouses was carried out at Department of Soil and Water Engineering, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana. There were total 12 treatments which were combination of four different sizes of polyhouses i.e. 560 m2 (T1-T3); 1008 m2 (T4-T6); 2080 m2 (T7-T9); 4000 m2 (T10-T12), with three design wind speeds 100 km/hr, 150 km/hr and 200 km/hr respectively. Truss members, columns and foundation stability analysis was carried out by considering dead loads, live loads and wind loads. Support reactions were computed on truss and column joints. Member forces were computed by using force method. The economic analysis was carried out by computing benefit cost (B/C) ratio and payback period for raising capsicum under stable structures. For every 17 set of truss members four members (two in compression (small arc) and two in tension (truss bracings)) failed in treatments with 150 and 200 km/hr wind speed while two members (in compression, (small arc)) failed in treatments with 100 km/hr wind speed. Minimum structural GI pipe material requirement for structurally stable polyhouses was under treatment T1 (2407 kg) and maximum under treatment T12 (19550 kg). The maximum benefit cost ratio was obtained in treatment T10 (1.77, 2.33) and minimum was in treatment T3 (1.36, 1.84) with no and 50% Government subsidy, respectively. The minimum payback period was obtained in treatment T10 (3.29 years, 1.26 years) and maximum in T3 (7.54 years, 2.19 years) with no and 50% subsidy, respectively. For the structurally stable naturally ventilated polyhouses as the size increases the benefit cost ratio increases, while the payback period decreases and for wind speed it is vice-versa.ThesisItem Open Access Soil Moisture Sensor System Development and evaluation for irrigation scheduling in subsurface drip irrigated Sugarcane(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2022) Raheja, Amina; Garg, SunilA study was conducted in Punjab Agricultural University on Soil Moisture Sensor System Development and evaluation for irrigation scheduling in subsurface drip irrigated Sugarcane. The sugarcane crop was sown for two consecutive years as plant (2019-20) and ratoon crop(2020-21). The irrigation to sugarcane crop was given by sub surface drip irrigation installed at three different depths-20 cm, 25 cm, and 30 cm depth. Water application was based on evapotranspiration of crop (ETc) for first year and sensor-based irrigation for ratoon crop. The low-cost capacitive sensor system with four moisture sensing probes was developed, calibrated, and tested both in laboratory and field to measure the sensor-to-sensor variability due to the placement of sensors in soil at different depths. The exponential calibration curve and two-point model was compared for developed low-cost sensor system and found to be accurate and precise. (Mean Absolute Error, Root Mean Square Error, and Relative Absolute Error of 1.56%, 0.36, and 0.65 respectively). The field calibrated soil sensing system was compared with a commercial SM150T sensor for measuring VMC in a sugarcane field. The sensor position in root zone plays a significant role in irrigation scheduling. Therefore, HYDUS 2D model was used for calibration, validation, and simulation of moisture movement in the root zone. It was found that the sensor could be installed within 10 cm periphery of the emitter irrespective of the drip depth. The developed sensor system was installed in the sugarcane for irrigation scheduling. The water requirement of sensorbased irrigation was at par with the irrigation based on ETc. The sugarcane yield was 8% and 10% more in drip depth of 25 and 30 cm respectively as compared to 20 cm drip depth. Water deficit up to 10% produced sugarcane yield like ET based irrigation for plant crop. However, water deficit beyond 10% significantly reduced the sugarcane yield both in plant and ratoon crop. Hence, the low-cost capacitive soil moisture sensor system consistently worked very well for the entire period of field testing with no practical issues, so can be used in atomization of the irrigation system.ThesisItem Restricted Land Use and Land Cover Change Analysis in District Shaheed Bhagat Singh Nagar of Punjab Using Geospatial Technology(Punjab Agricultural University, 2023) Sohal, Jaskaran Singh; Kaushal, ArunLand use and land cover (LU/LC) is observed to be the primary factor of environmental change on a worldwide scale. Timely and accurate information on LU/LC is very important for efficient planning and management activities. The present study on “land use and land cover change analysis in district Shaheed Bhagat Singh Nagar of Punjab using geospatial technology” was carried out at the Department of Soil and Water Engineering, PAU and PRSC, Ludhiana from 2021-2023 to classify LU/LC and to analyse decadal change in the study area from year 2012-2022. Satellite data of IRS P6 LISS-III (2012 , 2022) and IRS LISS-IV (2022) were analysed for LU/LC mapping using visual interpretation techniques. The study area was divided into seven LU/LC classes i.e.: agriculture, built-up, waterbody, forest/tree clad area, riverine sand, algae bloom and fallow land /barren land/waste land in which agriculture covers maximum while riverine sand covers minimum area. In decadal change the alterations encompass positive trends such as increased agricultural area (31.29 %), as well as negative trends including decreased algae bloom (59.82 %). Overall accuracy for LISS-III 2012, LISS-III 2022 and LISS- IV 2022 were 88.3 %, 86.66 % and 93.3 %, respectively with kappa coefficient value as 0.86, 0.83 and 0.91 , respectively. Hotspot areas with major changes were seen in Block Nawanshahr with major increase in built-up area, as well as in Block Saroya and Balachaur of study area with major decrease in Forest area. Highresolution data of IRS LISS-IV gives better accuracy as compared to IRS P6 LISS-III.ThesisItem Restricted Sensor Based Crop Water Stress Index (Cwsi) for Irrigation Scheduling in Subsurface Drip Irrigated MaizeWheat Cropping Sequence(Punjab Agricultural University, 2022) Susanta Das; Samanpreet KaurA study was conducted at Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana to develop a canopy temperature-based sensor-system to estimate the crop water stress index (CWSI) for irrigation scheduling in subsurface drip irrigated maize-wheat cropping sequence. Rabi wheat and kharif maize crop was sown for two consecutive years as (2019-20) and (2020-21). The crops were irrigated with different irrigation levels (60, 70, 80, 90 and 100% ETc) and varying irrigation interval (1-day, 2-day, and 3-day) through sub surface drip, installed at 20 cm depth as well as surface drip (100% ETc). Based on the field observations of rabi wheat (2019-20) and kharif maize (2020), the upper and lower baselines of canopy-air temperature were established for computation of Crop Water Stress Index (CWSI). The threshold value of CWSI was determined from the relationship between CWSI, grain yield, water use efficiency. For the entire growing period, a threshold value of CWSI was found to be 0.254, and 0.365 for wheat and maize respectively. Also, growth stagewise CWSI values have been estimated for maize-wheat. An IoT based sensor system was developed and programmed with Arduino for collection of temperature- humidity and cloud-based estimation of CWSI. The developed sensor system was deployed in the field during rabi wheat (2020-21) and kharif maize (2021) and based on the CWSI irrigation has been applied. Growth stage 3 was found, the most crucial stage for both wheat and maize from crop water stress point of view. Irrigation at 90 % of ETc with 3-day irrigation interval found to be the best and was recommended for SDI in maize-wheat cropping system. The irrigation scheduling by IoT based sensor system was found to be beneficial, as it lowers the crop water stress and enhance the yield and water use efficiency. Irrigation water saving by 15.43% and 19.87 % and yield enhancement was observed in 5.2 % and 6.4 % in wheat and maize, respectively as compared to 100 % ETc based sub surface drip irrigation. This developed sensor system has a great scope for adoption and can be calibrated for threshold CWSI for other crops.ThesisItem Open Access Optimizing Lateral Depth and Spacing for Subsurface Drip Irrigated Rice-Wheat Cropping System under Conservation Agriculture Through Simulation of Water and Nitrate Movement(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2021) Bajpai, Arpna; Kaushal, ArunThe research study was conducted at Borlaug Institute for South Asia, Ludhiana and Punjab Agricultural University Ludhiana, Punjab to optimize lateral depth and spacing for subsurface drip irrigated rice-wheat cropping system under conservation agriculture through simulation of water and nitrate movement during 2017-20. Experiments were laid out in randomized block design with eight treatments, (six drip irrigated (T1-T6), which were combination of lateral spacing X emitter spacing X dripline buried depth) and two control treatments (T7-T8) with three replication i.e. T1 (67.5 X 30 X 0 cm), T2 (45 X 40 X 0 cm), T3 (67.5 X 30 X 15 cm), T4 (45 X 40 X 15 cm), T5 (67.5 X 30 X 20 cm), T6 (45 X 40 X 20 cm), T7 (conventional flood irrigation method) and T8 (flood irrigation method with conservation agriculture). Grain yield and water productivity were maximum in treatment T4 (Wheat, 6.513 t/ha, 3.832 kg/m3 and Rice, 8.178 t/ha, 1.203 kg/m3 ) and minimum in T7 (Wheat, 5.620 t/ha, 1.406 kg/m3 and Rice, 7.410 t/ha, 0.492 kg/m3 ). Statistically T4 treatment was significantly at par with T6 treatment and higher than all other treatments for both rice and wheat crops. Most uniform soil moisture and nitrate movement were observed under T4. HYDRUS-2D model showed successful performance with Nash-sutcliffe model efficiency coefficient of 0.885 and coefficient of determination as 0.906. Economic analysis showed that treatment T4 (B:C-3.286) was economically viable and significantly higher than treatment T7 (B:C-3.157) only with 95% of drip irrigation subsidy.ThesisItem Restricted Developing Artificial Intelligence Algorithm for Identification and Classification of Abiotic Stresses in Maize(Punjab Agricultural University, 2023) Goyal, Pooja; Sharda, RakeshCereal crops like maize are seriously affected by the abiotic plant stresses, which cause substantial reduction in crop yields. New age Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Deep Learning (DL) techniques offer a non-invasive and a practical way for precise detection of these stresses in real time. The present study was planned to develop an AI-based algorithm for identification and classification of abiotic stresses in maize. Three consecutive experimental trials i.e. spring maize (2021), kharif maize (2021) and spring maize (2022) were conducted at the Research Farm of Department of Soil and Water Engineering, PAU, Ludhiana in a split-plot design with varieties in main plot and fertigation treatments in sub-plot. The subplots covered three types of nutritional deficiencies of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K), one water deficit plot and one plot with 100% irrigation and fertigation. Data regarding the plant growth and yield attributes were observed at different growth stages and a total of 6035 RGB images were captured throughout the crop growing seasons. These images were classified into five classes according to stress levels to build a DL-based Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) model. Two classification models were built, the first was a binary classification model for drought stress detection, and the second was a multi-class classification model to classify all the abiotic stresses. Further, 2 modelling approaches i.e. custom-CNN model and a transfer learning (TL) approach using 5 state-of-the-art architectures were used. Both ResNet50 and EfficientNet121 models performed the best, achieving a test accuracy and F1-score of 99.26% and 99.22% respectively in case of binary classification model. The ResNet50 model also achieved the highest average weighted accuracy and F1-score of 98.36% and 98.35% respectively for overall abiotic stress detection in maize. The custom-CNN model, with much lesser number of parameters compared to the transfer-learned networks, achieved an acceptable F1-score of 98.44% and 97.04% for drought and abiotic stress classification respectively. Therefore, the custom-CNN model was recommended for real-time abiotic stress assessment in maize crop especially on resource constrained devices.ThesisItem Embargo Assessment of groundwater recharge potential of village pond using geospatial techniques(Punjab Agricultural University, 2022) Shinde, Ankita Prakash; Satpute, SanjayThe water table is depleting at an alarmingly fast rate of 54 cm/yr in the Punjab state. This ongoing decrease in the water table necessitates the rapid and efficient development of artificial groundwater recharge and use of available surface water sources for the groundwater recharge. Keeping this in view the study was planned to assess groundwater recharge potential of village pond using geospatial techniques. To achieve the objectives of the study, Sentinel 2 images for the month of March 2020 of Ludhiana district was used. Three spectral indices namely NDWI, MNDWI and NDPI were used to identify and demarcate the area of village ponds in each village of the district. The efficiency of these indices were compared with the manually digitized area of the village pond for the accuracy assessment. NDWI could identify about 370 village ponds, MNDWI could identify and extract about 1263 village ponds and to further extract the village ponds, NDPI was used and NDPI could extract about 1410 village ponds whereas manually about 1513 village ponds could be demarcated, Therefore, in NDPI more than 90% efficiency could be achieved for identifying the village ponds and for demarcating the village pond, NDPI efficiency was about 60-65%. The average depth of 2 m was considered for the volume estimation of the village ponds and using NDPI, the volume of 873.8 ha-m was estimated. During the field study, the infiltration rate at the undisturbed pond was found to be 41.5 cm/day and disturbed pond bottom, it was found to be 69.1 cm/day. Considering the daily infiltration rate from the pond, annually about 301.9 ha-m of water can be recharged after removal of the bottom layer. If the bottom layer is kept undisturbed, then the recharge rate of 181.3 ha-m would be achieved in village pond. After improving infiltration rate, about 65% recharge can be enhanced through village ponds over undisturbed pond bottom.
