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ThesisItem Open Access Economic analysis of marketing and post-harvest losses of cash crops: a comparative analysis(CSK HPKV, Palampur, 2022-12-28) Katoch, Shagun; Lal, HarbansHimachal Pradesh offers enormous opportunities to practice cash crops mainly off-season as these have several unique and inherent advantages in terms of agro-climatic conditions and rich biodiversity. These crops offer greater hope for raising farmers out of the poverty due to higher marketable surplus and better prices at markets compared to other crops. Although farmers have succeeded on the production front, they have not achieved appreciably in terms of price realization for their produce. The intermediaries are depriving them of their due share of consumer’s rupee. However, these cash crops are grown in every district of the state without any organized backup of post- harvest management techniques which lead to low productivity and high spoilage of these crops. Therefore, the present study was carried out to work out economic analysis of marketing and post-harvest losses of cash crops in Baijnath (AES-I) and Kangra (AES-II) blocks of district Kangra in the state. The study was based on primary data collected through survey method from 100 vegetable growers selected randomly from 5 randomly selected vegetable growing villages each in AES-I and AES-II. The major findings reveal that cropping pattern of the sample growers was dominated by vegetables as these accounted for 69.69 per cent and 66.04 per cent of the total cropped area in AES-I and AES-II, respectively. The cropping intensity was nearly 202 per cent in AES-I and 209 in AES-II. The total production of vegetables was more in AES-II (74.21 q) than AES-I (43.54 q). The marketable surplus of all the vegetable crops except potato was found to be more than 90 per cent of total production in AES-I while in AES-II, all the vegetables had more than 95 per cent of the marketable surplus. The total marketed surplus of all the vegetables was higher in AES-II (3076.45 q) as compared to AES-I (1388.19 q). Among all vegetables, total marketed surplus per farm was highest for cauliflower (341.50 q) in AES-I while it was highest for bottle gourd (579.33 q) in AES-II. There was post-harvest loss of 2.40 quintal per farm in all the vegetables grown in AES-I. Comparatively, the post-harvest loss in AES-II was 5.20 quintal per farm in all the vegetables. Tomato accounted for the maximum post-harvest loss which alone shared 35.83 per cent and 20.76 per cent of the total loss per farm in AES-I and AES-II, respectively. The independent variables included in the regression model explained about 70.01 to 93.81 per cent variation in the post-harvest losses of all major vegetable crops in both the agro-ecological situations. The growers followed three marketing channels for disposal of vegetables out of which channel I (Producer →Local trader → Retailer→ Consumer) was the most used channel in AES-I by more than 70 per cent of the growers while Channel II (Producer→ Commission agent-cum-wholesaler →Retailer →Consumer) was the most used channel for disposal of vegetables in AES-II by more than 68 per cent of the growers except okra. The producer’s share in consumer rupee was found to be highest in channel-III (Producer-retailer-consumer) ranging from 74 to 81 per cent for all the vegetables in both AES-I and AES-II. High incidence of pest and diseases, lack of scientific storage facilities and unfavourable price received by growers were the important problems faced by the growers. Lack of storage facilities and high loss of produce during transportation were the important problems faced by the traders. The study suggested that small scale post-harvest processing infrastructure should be created in the study area as growers are sustaining huge post-harvest losses affecting returns accruing to them. The efforts should be made to reduce the pre-harvest disease/pest occurrence at growers’ level by educating themThesisItem Open Access Economics of production and marketing of tomato in Himachal Pradesh(palampur, 2022-11-30) Jyoti; Gupta, ManojTomato is one of the principal cash crops grown in Himachal Pradesh and accounts for about 15.32 per cent of the total vegetables produced in the state. District Solan is known as “City of Red Gold” owning to its dominance in the state tomato production. Off-season tomato farming has emerged as the primary source of income of some farmers in this district. The small and large farmers engaged in tomato cultivation are facing new challenges on the production and marketing front. The cost of various inputs has increased many folds affecting the profitability matrix of different crops in general and tomato crop in particular. The present study was carried out to study the economics of production and marketing of tomato in Himachal Pradesh to suggest various options for improving the prevalent tomato production and marketing system in the state. The present study was based on both primary and secondary data. The primary data were gathered through interview method from farmers of Solan district, Himachal Pradesh while secondary data were collected from various publications and websites of state government. The primary data collected from 90 farmers selected through multi stage random selection from selected villages of two blocks namely Kandaghat and Solan. The results revealed that the compound growth rate of area, production and productivity of tomato in Himachal Pradesh were 4.78, 6.39 and 1.53, respectively whereas, in Solan district the respective figures were 4.48, 6.28 and 1.72. The results indicated that the area under tomato was 32.87 per cent of total cropped area with average yield of 343.22 q/ha on an average farm. Out of total farmer’s income about 70.70 per cent was contributed by agriculture crops including tomato. The total cost of cultivation was estimated to be Rs. 368317 per hectare with variable cost accounting for about 84.14 per cent of the total cost. The output-input ratio was higher on large farms (2.46) than on small farms (2.09). Production function analysis indicated that seedlings, FYM and area under tomato were the most important factors affecting the tomato production. The marketed surplus of tomato accounted for nearly 88.98 per cent of its total production across the small and large farm category of farmers. The total production, losses and home consumption turned out to be most important factors affecting the marketed surplus of tomato. The channel- III involving producer primary wholesaler- secondary wholesaler- retailer- consumer was the most important channel followed by about 86.23 per cent of farmers. The producer’s share in the consumer’s rupee was highest in channel- I (83.55%) where the farmers sold tomato to retailers and then to consumers. This was followed by channel- II (70.55%) and channel- III (60.01%). The channel- I (involving producers- retailers- consumers) was found to be most efficient in the study area from the view point of higher net price received by farmers and higher marketing efficiency index. The non-availability of quality seeds on the production front and disposal of produce and transportation charges on the marketing front were the major problems faced by the farmers. This study suggests that farmers must be educated and trained to use complete package of practices to enhance the profitability of tomato crop. The tomato growers must also be encouraged and strengthened to adopt small scale value addition technologies to further enhance profitability of the cropThesisItem Open Access Impact of Panchayati Raj Institutions on Socio-Economic Development of Rural Households in Himachal Pradesh(palampur, 2022-07-18) Ghabru, Mahima Gopal; Lal, HarbansPanchayati Raj Institutions inter-alia have initiated the process of socio-economic development of rural areas by ensuring participatory management of masses and implementation of various social upliftment and poverty alleviation schemes. They are expected to bring radical transformation in rural areas through holistic agricultural and institutional development. In a state like Himachal Pradesh where majority of the population lives in rural areas this study becomes more relevant as PRIs embrace every aspect of rural life and are considered as harbingers of democracy and guardians of the village community. Therefore, present study was conducted to examine and analyze the role and impact of Panchayati Raj Institutions on the rural households in the four districts viz., Solan and Una (developed districts), Chamba and Sirmaur (under-developed districts) of Himachal Pradesh using both primary and secondary data. Multistage random sampling technique was employed and a total sample of 8 blocks, 40 panchayats/villages and 200 sample respondents was selected. The findings of the study put forth that in all the selected panchayats meetings of Gram Sabha were scheduled four times annually but the quorum was not met more than two times in most of the selected panchayats. The study employed Principal Component Analysis (PCA) to devise the development index for various selected panchayats. Fifteen per cent (6 no.) of panchayats primarily of Una and Solan districts were very highly developed and 22.50 per cent (9 no.) panchayats were highly developed while all the less developed panchayats were from Chamba and Sirmaur district showing that these panchayats still lag behind in developmental indicators. It was observed that around 29.50 per cent respondents from developed districts and 26.50per cent respondents from under-developed districts respectively were ready to pay for conservation of natural resources while 20.50 and 23.50 per cent respondents from developed and under-developed districts were unwilling to pay for resource conservation as they felt it would not be utilized effectively. In under-developed districts as the bid value increased the willingness to pay decreased. The study also put forth the different source of income for panchayats in which maximum share was of external sources i.e. Funds under Centre Sponsored Schemes like MGNREGA, PMAY, NRLM, etc. and funds from Finance Commission, across majority panchayats. Panchayats generated lot of income from various internal sources in which maximum share was contributed by liquor cess followed by house/land tax across all sample panchayats. Panchayats were effectively utilizing funds available with them by community asset creation, land development, sanitation, water supply, electrification, and welfare etc. Respondents in the study area felt that various activities were adequately being done by panchayats but there was scope for improvement by ensuring more transparency in their working, by timely execution of works and ensuring that works to be done in the panchayat area are taken up with the consent of all people. Therefore it is felt that by ensuring capacity building of panchayat representatives, recruitment of technical and support staff and by creating awareness among masses about the importance of gram sabhas and their participation in them could lead to holistic and effective socio-economic development in rural areas.ThesisItem Open Access Assessment of livelihood status of farmers of Himachal Pradesh trained by CSK HPKV, Palampur(palampur, 2020-11-18) Dhadwal, Neha; Thakur, Rajesh KumarAgriculture is the major source of livelihood for majority of the rural population in the developing countries like India. The livelihood security is a complex concept that is location specific, subjective and dynamic. It comprises of food, financial, health, cultural and educational securities and among these, food security is undoubtedly the major contributor of livelihood security. The farmers often face the problem of low level of productivity and farm income due to lack of proper knowledge regarding the usage of modern farming techniques. In Himachal Pradesh, imparting trainings to the farmers is one of the mandates of CSK HPKV, Palampur. During the period of 2016 to 2018, Satluj Jal Vidyut Nigam Ltd. Shimla has sponsored 52 training programmes to CSKHPKV in which 1300 farmers were trained in different streams. In the present study an attempt has been made to assess the livelihood status of trained farmers with respect to their farm resources, level of awareness & adoption of farm technologies and the different domains of livelihood security. Among the different districts of the state, the highest number of trained farmers were from the district Kangra and hence the district was selected purposively. In order to meet out the requirements of the objectives of the study, primary data were collected from 60 trained farmers through a two-stage sampling design. The secondary data pertaining to various trainings programmes conducted by CSKHPKV, Palampur were collected from records of Directorate of Extension Education, CSKHPKV, Palampur. The results were presented by working out averages, percentages and various indices for livelihood security. The average size of land holding was found to be quite low i.e. 0.3595 ha out of which 0.3055 ha was cultivated on overall farm situation. As far as employment of active workers was concerned, the majority (60.11 %) were associated with farming; while private jobs and government services was the major source of occupation for about 13 and 6 per cent of sample population, respectively, on overall farm situation. As far as the livestock inventory of the sample households was concerned, the average size of herd was found to be 1.62, having the value of Rs. 25,870/farm. The inventory of farm tools, implements and machinery on per farm basis was to the tune of Rs. 39,897 on overall basis. The analysis of the cropping pattern indicated that paddy and wheat were the major crops accounting for about 24 and 19 per cent of the total cropped area. The cropping intensity on the sample households was estimated at 204.75 per cent on overall basis. The analysis of awareness and knowledge about the different crop production practices indicated that the awareness level of sample households was quite good except for that of the weed management through the chemical application. As far as the use of FYM was concerned, it was on the lower side and the gap ranged between 3 to 17 per cent in different crops while in case of N, P and K, the percent gap ranged between 20 to 65 per cent for K among different crops. The per capita household income from different sources was estimated at Rs 4,96,086 in which the share of farm income was highest (60.69 per cent). The values of major domains of livelihood security index indicated that the sample households were relatively more secured with respect to education (0.46) followed by economic (0.30), food (0.27) and social (0.20) security aspect. The value of composite livelihood security index and weighted composite livelihood security index was found to be 0.31 and 0.39, respectivelyThesisItem Open Access Economics of Organic Farming and Role of CSK HPKV in Transfer of Organic Farming Technology in Himachal Pradesh(palampur, 2020-11-18) Kaur, Jasmeet; Lal, HarbansGreen Revolution technologies, supported by policies and fuelled by agrochemicals, machinery, and irrigation are known to have enhanced agricultural production and productivity. While these technologies greatly helped to address the food security of India, farmers using these technologies have to depend upon the purchased inputs. The cost of cultivation under this system is consistently increasing over the years. Due to the rampant use of inorganic chemicals for production in agriculture, the quality of food products, environment and eco-system has deteriorated. Organic agriculture is one of the broad spectrums of production methods that are supportive of the environment. Organic farming is certainly an answer to make safe food, eco-system and environment and to bring stability and sustainability to agriculture. The farmers in hilly regions have the opportunity to patronize organic farming ‘by default’. Realizing the importance, Model Organic Research Farm was established at CSK HPKV, Palampur on 15th April 2006. To examine the impact of institutional trainings on adoption of natural/organic farming technology in the state, a sample of 60 farmers was selected randomly through proportional allocation method from selected villages of Kangra and Hamirpur districts. The average size of land holding was 0.83 ha and about 68 per cent of area was put under cultivation. The cropping pattern revealed that among the different crops, the major proportion of total cropped area was occupied by paddy (18.24 %), maize+blackgram (11.56%) and maize (7.86 %) during the kharif season. Whereas, during the rabi season major area accounted for wheat (14.54%), wheat +gram intercrop (12.32%) and potato (8.59%). The net returns with family labour were found to be significantly high in maize + blackgram intercrop (Rs. 30648/ha) than the sole maize crop (Rs. 5608/ha). Similarly, in case of rabi season, wheat+ gram intercrop yielded higher returns (Rs. 26258/ha) than sole wheat crop (Rs. 5673/ha) on overall farm situation. The logit model was used to analyse the factors affecting the adoption of natural/organic farming and the estimates showed that education, family size and number of livestock per household significantly affected the adoption of natural/organic farming in the study area. The principal component analysis was used to calculate the overall adoption index of organic practices which resulted in 72.24 per cent of adoption level by the farmers. To further enhance the adoption levels, it is suggested that liberal funding may be provided to the university to promote organic/natural farming throughout the state. There is need to follow cluster approach and provide certification subsidy to farmers. Moreover, marketing system for organic commodities need to be developed as there is huge potential for organically grown products, worldwide.ThesisItem Open Access Economics of Different Crops Under Natural Farming at CSKHPKV, Palampur Farms(palampur, 2020-12-31) Gautam, Ishani; Bala, BrijExcessive use of agro chemicals resulted into degradation of soil and water affecting microbial community on one hand while on the other hand, there are cases of farmers’ suicides due to their inability to pay back loans taken for purchasing these agro-chemicals. With an objective to reduce pressure on environment as well as on farmers, Padma Shri recipient Subhash Palekar experimented various techniques and consolidated them into a concept called natural farming. These techniques are being popularized in different states. Therefore, the present study was taken to examine the economics of different crops under natural farming. The study pertained to CSK HPKV, Palampur farms as the natural farming in Himachal Pradesh started with the inauguration of a pilot project on natural farming at CSK HPKV, Palampur. It was observed that the cost of various nutrient formulations prepared on natural farms viz., Jeevamrit and Beejamrit was Rs. 2.36 and 8.99, respectively per litre while that of Ghanjeevamrit was Rs. 9.87 per kg. Variable cost accounted for more than 90 per cent of total cost incurred for preparation of these formulations. Per litre costs of pesticide formulations like Neemastra, Agniastra and Brahmastra were found to be Rs. 18.42, Rs. 12.69 and Rs. 14.46, respectively. Crops selected for the study were maize, pea, wheat, gram, soybean, finger millet and foxtail millet and the per hectare total cost of cultivation for these crops was Rs. 31686, 47555, 36914, 38280, 39267, 25711, and 21872, respectively. Comparison of these costs with the costs of crops grown under conventional farming showed that the total costs were comparatively less under natural farming. Further, it was also found that the yields and hence, the gross returns of crops under natural farming were less than the crops grown under conventional farming. Despite lower yields, BC ratios were higher under natural farming due to low cultivation costs. It was inferred that the natural farming can provide higher net returns but the yield/total production may go down risking the food security. Therefore, some efforts are needed in the direction to ensure equivalent yields under natural farming before advocating it on large scale.ThesisItem Open Access Dynamics of Land Use Pattern in Himachal Pradesh(Palampur, 2022-01-07) Sood, Shivalika; Kumar, VirenderThe status of land use pattern broadly reflects the process of development of a region. In a state like Himachal Pradesh where nearly 60 per cent of population depends upon agriculture as their main source of livelihood, it is a major land demanding activity. The stagnation of land under cultivation has become a severe problem due to unrelenting demographic pressure and because of increasing diversion of land from agriculture to non-agricultural uses. Therefore, the present research was carried out to study the dynamics of land use pattern in three agro-climatic zones (Zone I, II and III) of the state. The study was based on both secondary and primary data. The secondary data on land use for the period 1972-73 to 2018-19 were collected from different publications of Government of HP and GOI. Further, the data were grouped in four periods viz. period I ( TE 1974-75 to 1988-89), period II ( TE 1989-90 to 2003-04), period III (TE 2004-05-2018-19) and overall period ( TE1974-75 to 2018-19). Primary data were collected through survey method from 180 farmers selected using proportional allocation technique. The findings of the study showed that the proportion of area under forest has increased from 21.75 per cent in 1974-75 to 28.75 per cent in 1990-91, after that it declined to 24.56 per cent in 2018-19. The proportion of net sown area to the total area has declined from 18.85 per cent in 1974-75 to 11.94 per cent in 2004-05, after that it has risen marginally to 11.88 per cent in 2018-19. It was observed that the CAGR in area under culturable waste declined by 0.49 per cent per annum and barren land increased by 5.50 per cent whereas, land put to nonagricultural uses increased by 2.27 per cent and net sown area has significantly decreased at the rate of 0.13 per cent per annum during the overall period. It was noticed that period III has lowest level of instability in all categories of land compared to periods I and period II. Inter-sectoral land budgeting revealed that area shift were occurring from both desirable and undesirable ecology sectors towards agricultural as well as non-agricultural sectors. The results of multinomial logistic regression revealed that factors like total owned land, number of fragments, investment in agriculture sector and farm income significantly affected the agricultural land use for being in the medium category of land use change. The factors like age of head of household, education level of head, per cent irrigated area, number of fragments and farm income significantly affected the agricultural land use change for being in the high category of land use change. Simultaneous equation model was used to study the impact of agricultural land use change on agricultural production and results indicated that family size, cultivated land and agricultural productivity had positive impact on gross household income. But the impact of agricultural productivity was non-significant which indicated the fact that farmers’ income also depended on the non-agricultural earning. The other results showed that the gross household income, agricultural land use change and investment in agriculture had positive effects on agricultural productivity. The high significance of the agricultural land use change suggests that the change in agricultural productivity largely depended on the changing socio-economic conditions in agriculture. All the farmers who were engaged in natural farming experienced decrease in yield, farming expenses, net income and increase in manual labour and no change in price received for produce under natural farming. Therefore, proper planning and management of land resources and appropriate policy framework are required to check the conversion of agricultural land for non-agricultural purposes and proper implementation of land use policies are neededThesisItem Open Access Role of vegetable cultivation in doubling farmers’ income in Kullu district of Himachal Pradesh(Palampur, 2021-10-18) Dhillor, Ram Parshad; Bala, BrijVegetables contribute towards the food and nutritional security of the people. Besides their importance in a balanced human diet, vegetables also occupy a supreme position in farmers’ economy. How the vegetable cultivation could play a role in doubling farmers’ income, was taken as the objective of the present study, for which the profitability of different vegetables and their contribution in total household income was examined, various technological gaps and constraints were identified and the responses of farmers for suitable interventions to enhance income from vegetable cultivation were recorded. The study was conducted in a major vegetable growing block Kullu of district Kullu. A sample of 60 farmers was proportionally allocated among the six randomly selected villages. The average land holding size was about 0.48 ha, of which 66.67 per cent area was put under cultivation of crops. Tomato accounted for the maximum proportion (18.9 per cent) of the gross cropped area followed by cabbage, cauliflower, cucumber and garlic. The overall cropping intensity was 193.39 per cent. Gross returns per ha obtained for different vegetables varied from Rs. 5,06,590 to 12,57,554 with the output-input ratios ranging between 2.25 and 4.62. Vegetables contributed about 47 per cent of the total household income estimated at Rs. 7,42,598/annum. Among input-use gaps, imbalanced use of fertilizers and excessive use of pesticides were prominent. Management practices viz., soil treatment, number of irrigations and intercultural operations were reported with highest technological gaps in all the crops. Major problems faced by farmers in vegetable cultivation were non-availability of recommended agro-inputs at nearby centres, high cost of hired machinery, lack of knowledge about pest/weed control, poor irrigation facilities and stray animals. Problems associated with marketing were identified as shortage of skilled labour for grading and packing, shortage of packing/binding material, high transportation charges, non-availability of price information in time, multiplicity of charges and lower prices offered for the produce. Suggested interventions that played and can play a major role in enhancing/doubling farmers’ income through vegetable cultivation were like ensuring quality and timely availability of agro-inputs; exhorting judicious use of agro-inputs among farmers; enhancing labour efficiency through mechanization; improving irrigation availability and efficiency; diversifying and increasing area under vegetable cultivation and most importantly putting in place an efficient marketing system ensuring remunerative prices to the producers.ThesisItem Open Access Economic assessment of crop insurance scheme in Kangra district of Himachal Pradesh(Palampur, 2021-11-26) Dhiman, Sonal; Thakur, Rajesh KumarAgriculture has been and still is the major source of livelihood for more than 50 per cent of the total population of India but being highly dependent on the erratic and uneven monsoons, the sector is continuously facing unpredictability and higher exposure to various risks and uncertainties. Thus, to safeguard the interests of the farmers, agricultural insurance in India was first initiated in 1972 in H-4 cotton, which later extended to groundnut wheat and potato. Later on, several national and state level insurance schemes were implemented by increasing the sphere of coverage. At present, Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana and Restructured Weather Based Crop Insurance Scheme and few state level schemes are in operation in the country. Himachal Pradesh is a model hilly state of the country as far as development of agriculture is concerned and the crop insurance in the state is in operation since 1999-2000. But very limited studies on crop insurance had been carried in the state, hence, the present endeavour was planned to study the status of crops insurance schemes, assess their coverage, cost, compensation, perceptions and problems faced by farmers and stakeholders in Kangra district of Himachal Pradesh. The study was based on primary and secondary data. The primary data were collected from 80 crop insurers through personal survey method by adopting two stage random sampling technique. The data have been analysed by working out averages, percentage, indices and functional analysis. The socio- economic parameters like age wise distribution, occupational pattern, farm inventories, cropping pattern, etc. were studied. The average size of land holding was quite low i.e. 0.5330 ha out of which 70 per cent was being cultivated with cropping intensity of 203.29 per cent. Out of the total respondents 96.25 per cent were loanee and about 75 per cent of the total cropped area of total respondents was insured. The perceptions of the respondents revealed that among the various components of risks, the production risk (83.75 per cent) was reported to be major concern followed by price risk (11.25 per cent). On account of these risks, production losses to extent of 2.43, 0.49q and 0.01q/farm were estimated in wheat, paddy and maize, respectively on sample farms. The coverage of crops under insurance with respect to area and farmers increased at the rate of 6.67 and 10.38 per cent/annum of compound growth rate, respectively, during 2000-01 to 2019-20 in the country, whereas these figures for state were at 35.36 and 24.25 per cent. During the period of 1999-2000 to 2019-20, the sum insured, premium paid by farmers and compensation received under different schemes in Himachal Pradesh increased at 43.77, 17.59 and 3.69 per cent/annum, respectively. Lack of awareness, difference between actual and threshold yields, procedural complexities, etc. were the major problems reported by the respondents. The measures like increasing the awareness regarding crop insurance, solutions for practical problems, availability of inputs on time, promotion of RWBCIS for covering fruits and vegetables, etc. are suggested to increase the adoption of crop insurance schemes in the study area
