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ThesisItem Open Access Assessment of livelihood status of farmers of Himachal Pradesh trained by CSK HPKV, Palampur(palampur, 2020-11-18) Dhadwal, Neha; Thakur, Rajesh KumarAgriculture is the major source of livelihood for majority of the rural population in the developing countries like India. The livelihood security is a complex concept that is location specific, subjective and dynamic. It comprises of food, financial, health, cultural and educational securities and among these, food security is undoubtedly the major contributor of livelihood security. The farmers often face the problem of low level of productivity and farm income due to lack of proper knowledge regarding the usage of modern farming techniques. In Himachal Pradesh, imparting trainings to the farmers is one of the mandates of CSK HPKV, Palampur. During the period of 2016 to 2018, Satluj Jal Vidyut Nigam Ltd. Shimla has sponsored 52 training programmes to CSKHPKV in which 1300 farmers were trained in different streams. In the present study an attempt has been made to assess the livelihood status of trained farmers with respect to their farm resources, level of awareness & adoption of farm technologies and the different domains of livelihood security. Among the different districts of the state, the highest number of trained farmers were from the district Kangra and hence the district was selected purposively. In order to meet out the requirements of the objectives of the study, primary data were collected from 60 trained farmers through a two-stage sampling design. The secondary data pertaining to various trainings programmes conducted by CSKHPKV, Palampur were collected from records of Directorate of Extension Education, CSKHPKV, Palampur. The results were presented by working out averages, percentages and various indices for livelihood security. The average size of land holding was found to be quite low i.e. 0.3595 ha out of which 0.3055 ha was cultivated on overall farm situation. As far as employment of active workers was concerned, the majority (60.11 %) were associated with farming; while private jobs and government services was the major source of occupation for about 13 and 6 per cent of sample population, respectively, on overall farm situation. As far as the livestock inventory of the sample households was concerned, the average size of herd was found to be 1.62, having the value of Rs. 25,870/farm. The inventory of farm tools, implements and machinery on per farm basis was to the tune of Rs. 39,897 on overall basis. The analysis of the cropping pattern indicated that paddy and wheat were the major crops accounting for about 24 and 19 per cent of the total cropped area. The cropping intensity on the sample households was estimated at 204.75 per cent on overall basis. The analysis of awareness and knowledge about the different crop production practices indicated that the awareness level of sample households was quite good except for that of the weed management through the chemical application. As far as the use of FYM was concerned, it was on the lower side and the gap ranged between 3 to 17 per cent in different crops while in case of N, P and K, the percent gap ranged between 20 to 65 per cent for K among different crops. The per capita household income from different sources was estimated at Rs 4,96,086 in which the share of farm income was highest (60.69 per cent). The values of major domains of livelihood security index indicated that the sample households were relatively more secured with respect to education (0.46) followed by economic (0.30), food (0.27) and social (0.20) security aspect. The value of composite livelihood security index and weighted composite livelihood security index was found to be 0.31 and 0.39, respectivelyThesisItem Open Access Economics of Organic Farming and Role of CSK HPKV in Transfer of Organic Farming Technology in Himachal Pradesh(palampur, 2020-11-18) Kaur, Jasmeet; Lal, HarbansGreen Revolution technologies, supported by policies and fuelled by agrochemicals, machinery, and irrigation are known to have enhanced agricultural production and productivity. While these technologies greatly helped to address the food security of India, farmers using these technologies have to depend upon the purchased inputs. The cost of cultivation under this system is consistently increasing over the years. Due to the rampant use of inorganic chemicals for production in agriculture, the quality of food products, environment and eco-system has deteriorated. Organic agriculture is one of the broad spectrums of production methods that are supportive of the environment. Organic farming is certainly an answer to make safe food, eco-system and environment and to bring stability and sustainability to agriculture. The farmers in hilly regions have the opportunity to patronize organic farming ‘by default’. Realizing the importance, Model Organic Research Farm was established at CSK HPKV, Palampur on 15th April 2006. To examine the impact of institutional trainings on adoption of natural/organic farming technology in the state, a sample of 60 farmers was selected randomly through proportional allocation method from selected villages of Kangra and Hamirpur districts. The average size of land holding was 0.83 ha and about 68 per cent of area was put under cultivation. The cropping pattern revealed that among the different crops, the major proportion of total cropped area was occupied by paddy (18.24 %), maize+blackgram (11.56%) and maize (7.86 %) during the kharif season. Whereas, during the rabi season major area accounted for wheat (14.54%), wheat +gram intercrop (12.32%) and potato (8.59%). The net returns with family labour were found to be significantly high in maize + blackgram intercrop (Rs. 30648/ha) than the sole maize crop (Rs. 5608/ha). Similarly, in case of rabi season, wheat+ gram intercrop yielded higher returns (Rs. 26258/ha) than sole wheat crop (Rs. 5673/ha) on overall farm situation. The logit model was used to analyse the factors affecting the adoption of natural/organic farming and the estimates showed that education, family size and number of livestock per household significantly affected the adoption of natural/organic farming in the study area. The principal component analysis was used to calculate the overall adoption index of organic practices which resulted in 72.24 per cent of adoption level by the farmers. To further enhance the adoption levels, it is suggested that liberal funding may be provided to the university to promote organic/natural farming throughout the state. There is need to follow cluster approach and provide certification subsidy to farmers. Moreover, marketing system for organic commodities need to be developed as there is huge potential for organically grown products, worldwide.ThesisItem Open Access Economics of Different Crops Under Natural Farming at CSKHPKV, Palampur Farms(palampur, 2020-12-31) Gautam, Ishani; Bala, BrijExcessive use of agro chemicals resulted into degradation of soil and water affecting microbial community on one hand while on the other hand, there are cases of farmers’ suicides due to their inability to pay back loans taken for purchasing these agro-chemicals. With an objective to reduce pressure on environment as well as on farmers, Padma Shri recipient Subhash Palekar experimented various techniques and consolidated them into a concept called natural farming. These techniques are being popularized in different states. Therefore, the present study was taken to examine the economics of different crops under natural farming. The study pertained to CSK HPKV, Palampur farms as the natural farming in Himachal Pradesh started with the inauguration of a pilot project on natural farming at CSK HPKV, Palampur. It was observed that the cost of various nutrient formulations prepared on natural farms viz., Jeevamrit and Beejamrit was Rs. 2.36 and 8.99, respectively per litre while that of Ghanjeevamrit was Rs. 9.87 per kg. Variable cost accounted for more than 90 per cent of total cost incurred for preparation of these formulations. Per litre costs of pesticide formulations like Neemastra, Agniastra and Brahmastra were found to be Rs. 18.42, Rs. 12.69 and Rs. 14.46, respectively. Crops selected for the study were maize, pea, wheat, gram, soybean, finger millet and foxtail millet and the per hectare total cost of cultivation for these crops was Rs. 31686, 47555, 36914, 38280, 39267, 25711, and 21872, respectively. Comparison of these costs with the costs of crops grown under conventional farming showed that the total costs were comparatively less under natural farming. Further, it was also found that the yields and hence, the gross returns of crops under natural farming were less than the crops grown under conventional farming. Despite lower yields, BC ratios were higher under natural farming due to low cultivation costs. It was inferred that the natural farming can provide higher net returns but the yield/total production may go down risking the food security. Therefore, some efforts are needed in the direction to ensure equivalent yields under natural farming before advocating it on large scale.ThesisItem Open Access Economic analysis of hybrid paddy production in Poanta Sahib block of district Sirmaur (H.P.)(palampur, 2019-07-23) Thakur, Narender; Gupta, ManojRice (Oryza sativa L.) is a cereal crop and is the staple food for more than 60 per cent of world‘s populace. About 90 per cent of all rice grown in the world is produced and consumed in the Asian region. In India, rice accounts for 32.7% and 41.5% of the acreage and production of food grains respectively. The present study was undertaken on hybrid paddy in Poanta Sahib block of Sirmaur district of Himachal Pradesh. A survey of 60 hybrid paddy growers was conducted in Poanta Sahib block. Out of 60 farmers, 24 hybrid paddy growers were small and 36 growers were large. The major findings revealed that the average area under hybrid paddy cultivation was 1.14 ha on small farms, 1.94 ha on large farms with an average of 1.62 ha. The major component of cost was found to be hired labour estimated at Rs. 20592 per ha on overall farms. Value of seed was another major cost component as the cost of seed was estimated at Rs. 6346 per ha on overall farms. The productivity of hybrid paddy came out to be 67.14 q/ha on overall farms. The returns over total cost were Rs. 31802/ha on overall farms. The highest output-input ratio was on small farms (1.47:1) as compared to large farms (1.16:1) and it was 1.34:1 at overall farms. Maximum technological gap in hybrid paddy cultivation was in fertilizers use as excess amounts of chemical fertilizers were used. Number of irrigations was also higher than recommended rate on overall farm situations. The hybrid paddy production was found to be 108.84 q per farm on overall farms and 99.85 per cent of which was meant for sale in the market. The hybrid paddy growers followed three major marketing channels, out which channel-I (Producer- Govt. procurement agency-Miller-Govt. agency-fair prices shops-Consumer) was found to be major marketing channel disposing 64.38 per cent of total marketed surplus. The low efficiency index in channel-II was reported due to many market functionaries involved between producer and consumer. Non-availability of proper market and lack of milling facilities and labour shortage, high wage rate and tractor charges were the main problems reported by growers in the study area.ThesisItem Open Access Economic analysis of tomato under protected and open environment in Kangra District, H.P.(palampur, 2017-07-15) Mehta, Kanika; Guleria, J.S.The present study pertained to economic analysis of tomato under protected and open environment in Kangra District, H.P. This study is based upon the data collected for the Agricultural Year 2015-16 from 60 tomato (30 open-field and 30 polyhouse) growers, selected through proportional allocation method from Baijnath and Bhedu Mahadev blocks of Kangra District, Himachal Pradesh. The study reveals that under open-field/ natural conditions, among vegetables, the average yield of tomato crop was found to be the highest in the study area. Under protected conditions, the maximum cropped area was found to be under tomato (52.59%) followed by capsicum (21.04%) and cucumber (14.83%). Human labour was found to be the most important component of tomato cultivation under both open-field and protected conditions, accounting for 73.43 per cent and 82.68 per cent of the total variable cost, respectively. Under open-field conditions, the net returns over variable cost was Rs. 2,32,282/ha and output-input ratio stood at 1.50:1. Under protected conditions, it was found that all types of costs viz. variable, fixed and total costs declined with the size of the holding, mainly due to economies of scale. Further, it was found that the returns over total cost and variable cost were higher on small farms in comparison to large farms. The output-input ratio stood at 1.15:1, on overall basis. Protected cultivation contributed 10.68 per cent in the total annual gross household income of the polyhouse growers, at overall level. Large polyhouse category earned higher proportion (14.52%) as compared to small category (7.02%). The income variability of polyhouse growers was found to be less in comparison to the open-field growers. Unavailability of improved varieties at the time of sowing, the high cost of improved varieties, lack of awareness regarding the high yielding and resistant varieties, lack of storage facilities, etc. were the major problems faced by open-field growers in the study area. In case of polyhouse growers, the lack of knowledge about site, orientation, material etc., non-serious approach of construction companies, problem of repairs/spare parts, lack of technical knowhow and training, inadequate extension and advisory services, etc. were the major problems. The study has suggested that efforts are required for creating cold storage facilities to increase the shelf life of tomato. Aside from prolonging the shelf life of the crop, product diversification through processing may enhance the income of tomato growers in the study area. There is a dire need to bring polyhouses under insurance cover to make the scheme more sustainable in future.ThesisItem Open Access Role of vegetable cultivation in doubling farmers’ income in Kullu district of Himachal Pradesh(Palampur, 2021-10-18) Dhillor, Ram Parshad; Bala, BrijVegetables contribute towards the food and nutritional security of the people. Besides their importance in a balanced human diet, vegetables also occupy a supreme position in farmers’ economy. How the vegetable cultivation could play a role in doubling farmers’ income, was taken as the objective of the present study, for which the profitability of different vegetables and their contribution in total household income was examined, various technological gaps and constraints were identified and the responses of farmers for suitable interventions to enhance income from vegetable cultivation were recorded. The study was conducted in a major vegetable growing block Kullu of district Kullu. A sample of 60 farmers was proportionally allocated among the six randomly selected villages. The average land holding size was about 0.48 ha, of which 66.67 per cent area was put under cultivation of crops. Tomato accounted for the maximum proportion (18.9 per cent) of the gross cropped area followed by cabbage, cauliflower, cucumber and garlic. The overall cropping intensity was 193.39 per cent. Gross returns per ha obtained for different vegetables varied from Rs. 5,06,590 to 12,57,554 with the output-input ratios ranging between 2.25 and 4.62. Vegetables contributed about 47 per cent of the total household income estimated at Rs. 7,42,598/annum. Among input-use gaps, imbalanced use of fertilizers and excessive use of pesticides were prominent. Management practices viz., soil treatment, number of irrigations and intercultural operations were reported with highest technological gaps in all the crops. Major problems faced by farmers in vegetable cultivation were non-availability of recommended agro-inputs at nearby centres, high cost of hired machinery, lack of knowledge about pest/weed control, poor irrigation facilities and stray animals. Problems associated with marketing were identified as shortage of skilled labour for grading and packing, shortage of packing/binding material, high transportation charges, non-availability of price information in time, multiplicity of charges and lower prices offered for the produce. Suggested interventions that played and can play a major role in enhancing/doubling farmers’ income through vegetable cultivation were like ensuring quality and timely availability of agro-inputs; exhorting judicious use of agro-inputs among farmers; enhancing labour efficiency through mechanization; improving irrigation availability and efficiency; diversifying and increasing area under vegetable cultivation and most importantly putting in place an efficient marketing system ensuring remunerative prices to the producers.ThesisItem Open Access Economic assessment of crop insurance scheme in Kangra district of Himachal Pradesh(Palampur, 2021-11-26) Dhiman, Sonal; Thakur, Rajesh KumarAgriculture has been and still is the major source of livelihood for more than 50 per cent of the total population of India but being highly dependent on the erratic and uneven monsoons, the sector is continuously facing unpredictability and higher exposure to various risks and uncertainties. Thus, to safeguard the interests of the farmers, agricultural insurance in India was first initiated in 1972 in H-4 cotton, which later extended to groundnut wheat and potato. Later on, several national and state level insurance schemes were implemented by increasing the sphere of coverage. At present, Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana and Restructured Weather Based Crop Insurance Scheme and few state level schemes are in operation in the country. Himachal Pradesh is a model hilly state of the country as far as development of agriculture is concerned and the crop insurance in the state is in operation since 1999-2000. But very limited studies on crop insurance had been carried in the state, hence, the present endeavour was planned to study the status of crops insurance schemes, assess their coverage, cost, compensation, perceptions and problems faced by farmers and stakeholders in Kangra district of Himachal Pradesh. The study was based on primary and secondary data. The primary data were collected from 80 crop insurers through personal survey method by adopting two stage random sampling technique. The data have been analysed by working out averages, percentage, indices and functional analysis. The socio- economic parameters like age wise distribution, occupational pattern, farm inventories, cropping pattern, etc. were studied. The average size of land holding was quite low i.e. 0.5330 ha out of which 70 per cent was being cultivated with cropping intensity of 203.29 per cent. Out of the total respondents 96.25 per cent were loanee and about 75 per cent of the total cropped area of total respondents was insured. The perceptions of the respondents revealed that among the various components of risks, the production risk (83.75 per cent) was reported to be major concern followed by price risk (11.25 per cent). On account of these risks, production losses to extent of 2.43, 0.49q and 0.01q/farm were estimated in wheat, paddy and maize, respectively on sample farms. The coverage of crops under insurance with respect to area and farmers increased at the rate of 6.67 and 10.38 per cent/annum of compound growth rate, respectively, during 2000-01 to 2019-20 in the country, whereas these figures for state were at 35.36 and 24.25 per cent. During the period of 1999-2000 to 2019-20, the sum insured, premium paid by farmers and compensation received under different schemes in Himachal Pradesh increased at 43.77, 17.59 and 3.69 per cent/annum, respectively. Lack of awareness, difference between actual and threshold yields, procedural complexities, etc. were the major problems reported by the respondents. The measures like increasing the awareness regarding crop insurance, solutions for practical problems, availability of inputs on time, promotion of RWBCIS for covering fruits and vegetables, etc. are suggested to increase the adoption of crop insurance schemes in the study areaThesisItem Open Access A study of the socio-economic profile of PM-KISAN beneficiaries in District Kangra (HP)(Palampur, 2021-10-26) Bhadwal, Shiwani; Kumar, VirenderThe development in agriculture sector has always been viewed in terms of boosting output and enhancing food security, rather than the welfare of farmers. The hardships in terms of low income and limited access to cheaper credit have resulted in interminable agony in this sector, resulting in an upsurge in the number of farmer suicides. The governments over time, have granted various subsidies to farmers to supplement their incomes. This approach, however, has introduced new challenges in agricultural policy making due to inefficiencies and high transaction costs in social welfare programmes. These challenges have shifted the focus of agricultural policy to a new horizon, notably Direct Income Support (DIS). The Central Sector Scheme, "Pradhan Mantri Kisan Samman Nidhi (PM-KISAN)” is a momentous step in this direction. The present study was carried out in district Kangra (H.P.) to gain an understanding of the socio-economic profile and fund utilization pattern of PM-KISAN beneficiaries. Three stage random sampling technique was used for the selection of blocks, panchayats and farmers. And a sample of 80 farmers was drawn randomly from the selected villages which were further categorized in small (28) and marginal (52) categories on the basis of total size of land holding using cumulative cube root frequency method. The findings of study revealed that the average holding size on marginal and small farms was 0.1819 ha and 0.9914 ha, respectively. The sample households reared on an average 1.44 farm animals, which was slightly higher on small farms (2.14/farm) than on marginal farms (1.06/farm). The farm income accounted for 32.25 per cent of total household income, with crops accounting for 22.93 per cent and livestock accounting for 9.32 per cent when compared to non-farm income (67.75%). All sample respondents possessed basic necessities, with small farmers having a slightly higher availability of durable goods than marginal farmers. The scheme was reported to have 100.00 per cent coverage of the sample respondents. The amount of fund spent on farm activities (crop and livestock) in the year 2018-2019, 2019-2020 and 2020-2021 was found to be 81.28 per cent, 69.61 per cent and 55.01 per cent of the total amount, respectively. Furthermore, farmers who received PM-KISAN benefits during the agricultural peak season reported spending it on agriculture, while those who received it during the off-season spent it on consumption. The fund utilization pattern of marginal farmers differed significantly from small farmers. Of the total fund received, 47.64 per cent of the fund was used for tractor hiring charges followed by purchase of fertilizers (24.31%), seeds (21.13%) and pesticides (6.98%) on sample farms. The most common crop production, institutional and marketing challenges in the study area were stray animals, lack of training facilities and lack of marketing extension services, respectively. Based on the findings it is suggested that the government should preferably release and restructure installment amounts keeping in view the seasonal needs of the farmers. Along with this, the enhancement of entitlement and provision of skillbuilding trainings to farmers are the potential areas that need to be worked uponThesisItem Open Access Role of vegetable cultivation in doubling farmers’ income in Kullu District of Himachal Pradesh(Palampur, 2021-07-25) Dhillor, Ram Parshad; Bala, BrijVegetables contribute towards the food and nutritional security of the people. Besides their importance in a balanced human diet, vegetables also occupy a supreme position in farmers’ economy. How the vegetable cultivation could play a role in doubling farmers’ income, was taken as the objective of the present study, for which the profitability of different vegetables and their contribution in total household income was examined, various technological gaps and constraints were identified and the responses of farmers for suitable interventions to enhance income from vegetable cultivation were recorded. The study was conducted in a major vegetable growing block Kullu of district Kullu. A sample of 60 farmers was proportionally allocated among the six randomly selected villages. The average land holding size was about 0.48 ha, of which 66.67 per cent area was put under cultivation of crops. Tomato accounted for the maximum proportion (18.9 per cent) of the gross cropped area followed by cabbage, cauliflower, cucumber and garlic. The overall cropping intensity was 193.39 per cent. Gross returns per ha obtained for different vegetables varied from Rs. 5,06,590 to 12,57,554 with the output-input ratios ranging between 2.25 and 4.62. Vegetables contributed about 47 per cent of the total household income estimated at Rs. 7,42,598/annum. Among input-use gaps, imbalanced use of fertilizers and excessive use of pesticides were prominent. Management practices viz., soil treatment, number of irrigations and intercultural operations were reported with highest technological gaps in all the crops. Major problems faced by farmers in vegetable cultivation were non-availability of recommended agro-inputs at nearby centres, high cost of hired machinery, lack of knowledge about pest/weed control, poor irrigation facilities and stray animals. Problems associated with marketing were identified as shortage of skilled labour for grading and packing, shortage of packing/binding material, high transportation charges, non-availability of price information in time, multiplicity of charges and lower prices offered for the produce. Suggested interventions that played and can play a major role in enhancing/doubling farmers’ income through vegetable cultivation were like ensuring quality and timely availability of agro-inputs; exhorting judicious use of agro-inputs among farmers; enhancing labour efficiency through mechanization; improving irrigation availability and efficiency; diversifying and increasing area under vegetable cultivation and most importantly putting in place an efficient marketing system ensuring remunerative prices to the producers.
