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ThesisItem Open Access SOCIAL AND FEEDING BEHAVIOUR IN FREE-RANGING AND CAPTIVE POPULATIONS OF LION-TAILED MACAQUE (Macaca silenus)(COLLEGE OF VETERINARY AND ANIMAL SCIENCES POOKODE, WAYANAD, KERALA VETERINARY AND ANIMAL SCIENCES UNIVERSITY, 2023-02-21) MONISHA V.; Dr. Sabin GeorgeLion-tailed macaques (Macaca silenus) habitat distribution was continuous population extends from a few kilo meters north of the Sharavati River in Karnataka to the Agasthyamalai hills at the southern tip of the Western Ghats. The Western Ghats are geologically split into two parts, separated by a 40-km-long gap near Palghat in the state of Kerala; this gap naturally divides the northern and southern populations of the lion-tailed macaque. Even within these two large ranges, the rain forest has become fragmented due to the development of commercial plantations and the construction of water reservoirs in the hills for irrigation and power generation. As a result, the lion-tailed macaque groups inhabiting these forest fragments have become small breeding populations. The social and feeding behaviour of Lion tailed macaques in free range were studied at Silent Valley National Park (11˚ 06’ N and 76˚ 42’E) and captive lion tailed macaques at Thiruvanathapuram Zoological Garden captivity during 2019-2021. The mapping of lion tailed macaques distribution, habitat identification, vegetation sampling in the Silent Valley national park using transect based quadrate sampling method by using binoculars, GPS and maps during the field visit. During the field work, all the behavioural activities were video recorded in the free range and at captivity. During the field survey six troop of lion tailed macaques, 114 individuals were sighted, with mean group size of 18.6 and adult male, female ratio was ranged from 1:2.5 to 1:8. The vegetation studies revealed 112 plant species were identified and out of that 36 plant species were commonly used. Lion tailed macaques, arboreal, fruigvorous animals and diet preferences were adaptable to the season. Macaques were preferred feeding on Kuranguplavu (Cullenia exarillata) fruits and flowers during summer (10.2 per cent), south west monsoon (21.4 per cent) and north east monsoon (25.6 per cent). While compared to lion tailed macaques housed in Thiruvanathapuram zoo, six macaques were in closed cages and five macaques were housed in open enclosure with dry moat and vegetation area. The diet preferences for macaques in captivity were in the order of egg, different varieties of banana, pineapple, water melon, groundnut and grapes. Comparing the behaviour traits of wild macaques in silent valley park and at Zoos are different by their places, seasons and troop size. The activity analysis among different age group of macaques in silent valley park exhibited normal social behaviours like feeding (46.5 per cent), grooming (26.2 per cent), foraging (5.4 per cent), resting (13.4 per cent) in adult macaques during summer season. The macaques housed in Thiruvananthapuram Zoo are aged, old male and female (more than 13 years old) except three zoo born macaques. The enrichment of feeding area, sleeping sites proposals were studied and implemented. The abnormal begging behaviour, showing teeth, fighting were not observed in the macaques in captivity, however, stealing food and dominance hierarchy were evident among open enclosure macaques. The welfare measures for macaques in captivity may be considered by enriching their diet chart, based on the macaque’s activity and maintenance requirement.ThesisItem Open Access EFFECT OF FEEDING BLACK SOLDIER FLY (Hermetia illucens) LARVAE MEAL AS PROTEIN SOURCE IN THE PERFORMANCE OF MEAT TYPE JAPANESE QUAIL(COLLEGE OF VETERINARY AND ANIMAL SCIENCES MANNUTHY, THRISSUR, KERALA VETERINARY AND ANIMAL SCIENCES UNIVERSITY, 2022-02-25) REKHA A.; Dr. Justin DavisThe experiment was conducted in Department of Livestock Production Management, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy to evaluate the effect of feeding Black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae meal as protein source in the performance of meat type Japanese quail. Black soldier fly larvae were produced through natural breeding and the larval yield were 493.17g and 244.35g larvae/month from 4kg food waste from modified bin and flower pot respectively. Seasonal variation was observed in the larval production and the yield was more during hotter months. Iso-nitrogenous and iso-caloric diets were prepared using BSF larvae meal.A total of one hundred-and-eighty day-old meat type Japanese quail chicks were randomly allotted in to three dietary treatments with six replicates of ten birds each. Treatments were control, BSF25 and BSF50 and were fed with soyabean meal based diet, replaced 25 per cent soya bean meal with BSF larvae meal and replaced 50 per cent soya bean meal with BSF larvae meal respectively. Feed consumption and body weight gain were significantly higher for control group but BSF50 was superior in terms of feed conversion ratio and dressing per cent. No significant difference was observed in weight of abdominal fat, heart and gizzard with exception in the weight of the liver and was significantly higher in control group. Analysis of the margin of return revealed that both control and BSF25 ended in loss, the only group which ended in profit was BSF50. The study revealed that it is high time to find a cheap alternative for conventional protein source like soya bean meal and the findings in the present study pointed that black soldier fly larvae meal can very well be used, and replacing soya bean @ 50 per cent yielded the best results in margin of return.ThesisItem Open Access IMPACT OF ENRICHMENT OF GRAZING MEADOW WITH AUTOMATED WATER TROUGH ON THE WELFARE OF CROSSBRED CATTLE(COLLEGE OF VETERINARY AND ANIMAL SCIENCES, MANNUTHY, THRISSUR , KERALA VETERINARY AND ANIMAL SCIENCES UNIVERSITY, 2021-11-02) VISHNU DEV R. S; Dr. S. HarikumarGrazing practices of cattle in meadows enriched with automatic drinking water facility was evaluated. The improvement in animal welfare was studied. Lactating cows and heifers (18 each) were selected for the period of study during the summer months of February and March 2021 at Base Farm, Kolahalamedu, Idukki, Kerala. Animals were divided into three groups and each group comprised of six lactating cows and six heifers. In group T1 animals were allowed to a grazing meadow enriched with an automatic drinking water trough and in T2 animals were allowed to a meadow without provision for water. Animals in the T3 group were kept stallfed throughout the study period. Body temperature and respiration rates were higher in the grazing groups (T1 and T2) compared to the stallfed group. At the end of the study period, the lactating cows of T1 showed significantly reduced levels of serum cortisol. The total grazing activity of lactating cows provided with drinking water was significantly lower than lactating cows without the provision of water. Moreover, these animals showed significantly higher rumination activity than T2 at 12:00 noon. Lactating cows and heifers in the T1 group consumed 78.26± 3.86 and 26.98 ± 2.81 liters of water respectively and the frequency of visits to the water trough was 9.20 ± 0.67 and 8.46 ± 0.64 respectively. The blood parasites and endoparasites infestations among all the experimental animals at the end of the experiment showed no significant difference. In general, as the ambient temperature increased, grazing activities in animals of both T1 and T2 started to reduce by 11:00 a.m. The heat load index was more in the meadows than in the shed which necessitates the regulation of grazing duration and time. It could be concluded that grazing of animals in meadows enriched with automated water trough significantly reduced the serum cortisol level and animals exhibited relatively increased comfort level while grazing.ThesisItem Open Access BEHAVIOURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSE OF CAPTIVE MACAQUES TO STRESSORS(COLLEGE OF VETERINARY AND ANIMAL SCIENCES MANNUTHY, THRISSUR, KERALA VETERINARY AND ANIMAL SCOIENCES UNIVERSITY, 2022-01-02) LIVIN RAJ V. L.; Dr. S. BijuAnimal behaviour was an important tool in assessing the welfare of animals, and a study on behaviour and the stress inducing factors in captivity was essential to ensure welfare and thus successful breeding and conservation. The present study was conducted to assess the behavioural and physiological response of captive macaques to stressors, and to identify areas where intervention was needed. The three macaque species namely Lion-tailed macaque (Macaca silenus), Rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) and Bonnet macaque (Macaca radiata) housed in Kerala zoos were studied. The group size and composition, and the enclosure provisions for these species were documented. It was observed that visitor presence hadn’t significantly affected the within the group behavioural interaction in the macaque species. The appeasement behaviour was significantly (P< 0.05) higher in Bonnet macaques as compared to Lion-tailed macaques. Verbal teasing was the prominent interaction of visitors to macaques and the response of macaques to visitors were mostly neutral. The behavioural interaction of macaques to zookeepers and vermins were also neutral. On observing the general behaviour, maintenance behaviour was more prominent in all the macaque species and visitors had no effect on the manifestation of general behaviours. The composition and quantity of ration provided in captivity were documented, and found that Lion- tailed macaques and Rhesus macaques have more preference to fruits in their ration. Endoparasitic prevalence of Coccidia, Strongyle and Trichuris were identified in the macaques, with higher prevalence of endoparasitism in Bonnet macaques. Visitor’s presence had no effect on the faecal glucocorticoid metabolite level in the three macaque species. But faecal glucocorticoid metabolite level was found to be positively correlated with eggs per gram of Strongyle in Rhesus and Bonnet macaques, and oocysts per gram in all the macaque species. Better breeding performance was recorded in Bonnet macaques. Proper vaccination and deworming were practiced for the prevention and control of diseases in the zoos.ThesisItem Open Access ENVIRONMENTAL ENRICHMENT TO ABATE AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOUR AND MORTALITY IN PIGLETS(COLLEGE OF VETERINARY AND ANIMAL SCIENCES POOKODE, WAYANAD, 2022-03-26) SHEHNAZ RAHMAN; N. GeethaThe effect of environmental enrichment on aggressive behaviour, skin injury, performance and microclimatic variation were studied in weaned Large White Yorkshire (LWY) piglet. Forty eight LWY weaned piglets of either sex were selected and divided into eight groups, each with six piglets. T1, T3, T5 and T7 piglets were weaned at 35 days old indicating control, area reduction, straw and balls enrichment treatments, respectively. T2, T4, T6 and T8 piglets were weaned at 45 days old representing control, area reduction, straw and balls enrichment treatments, respectively. It was found that the frequency and duration of all the aggressive behaviour viz. namely parallel pressing, inverse parallel pressing, head-to-head knock, biting and levering were found to be lowest in T5 and T6 (P<0.01), followed by T7 and T8 (P<0.01) respectively. However, the frequency and duration of the aggressive behaviour was found to be highest in T3 and T4 (P<0.01) respectively. The highest number of skin injury was found in T3 and T4 (P<0.01) respectively. Whereas, the skin injury lesions were lowest in T5 and T6 (P< 0.01) followed by T7 and T8 (P<0.01). The mean body weight of the T5 and T6 piglets (8.18 ± 0.21 and 10.00 ± 0.48) and T7 and T8 piglets (8.12 ± 0.09 and 9.90 ± 0.14) was higher than the piglets in T1 and T2 (7.30 ± 0.43 and9.59 ± 0.5) kg with significant difference between them (P<0.05) in case of the piglets weaned at 35 days and 45 days old respectively. However, piglets in T3 (7.18 ± 0.29) and T4 (8.87 ± 0.36) kg had significantly (P<0.05) lower mean body weight compared to all other treatments at the end of the study period. The overall mean temperatures, RH, wind speed and light intensity were 26.91 ± 1.19° C, 80.73 ± 3.84 per cent, 0.67 ± 0.14 m/s and 22.73 ± 2.65 (×10) lux, respectively. The aggressive behaviour was positively correlated with wind velocity, temperature and relative humidity whereas negatively correlated with light intensity. No post weaning mortality was seen in any of the treatment groups.ThesisItem Open Access NUTRIENT RECYCLING POTENTIAL OF FLY LARVAE FOR BIOWASTE MANAGEMENT(COLLEGE OF VETERINARY AND ANIMAL SCIENCES MANNUTHY, THRISSUR, 2021-10-18) DEEPAK MATHEW D K; A. KannanThe fly larva plays a pivotal role in nutrient recycling of biowastes. This study was to find the nutrient recycling efficiency of fly larvae in biowastes, and to assess the nutrient content of fly larva and economic viability of bioconversion. The flies that colonized biowaste were identified in the pilot study. The five different biowastes viz. cow dung (BW-I), pig manure (BW-II), poultry manure (BW-III), poultry slaughter waste (BW-IV) and food waste (BW-V) were subject for the study. The climatic parameters, fly and larval activity, physicochemical parameters and proximate principles of substrate and leachate were recorded in the three different seasons viz summer (S-I), monsoon (S-II) and post monsoon (S-III). The biomass yields from the biowastes were also recorded. The results showed that primary colonizers, Chrysomya sp. were significant in poultry slaughter waste while Black soldier fly (BSF) was significantly found in food waste. During the study period, the climatic variables, temperature (oC), relative humidity (per cent) and rainfall ranged from 28 to 30oC, 75 to 84 per cent and 15 to 359 mm respectively. Significant (p< 0.05) reduction in weight (kg) was observed in BW-IV with a final weight of 1.97 kg. Significantly high temperature ( oC ) of 40.28oC was observed in middle layer of BW-V in phase-I of S-I. Significantly low pH was recorded in BW-V (3.5), and significantly high pH was observed in BV-III (7.96). Carbon dioxide emission was significantly higher in BW-V (49.9 per cent), while ammonia and hydrogen sulphide were significantly higher in BW-IV which were 100 and 347.63 ppm respectively. The highest significant larval biomass yield of 33.42 g (BSF) was from BW-V during S-I which was significant with other substrates. The crude protein (CP) of Chrysomya larva, ranged between 49 to 51 per cent while for BSF larvae it was 36 to 38 per cent. Highest significant BOD of 36.73 g/l and COD of 52.57 g/l were recorded from BW-IV. The reduction in weight of biowaste on dry matter basis was highest for BW-V in S-I (59.8 per cent) while it was below one per cent for BW-I, II and III. The highest total biomass yield of 445.16 g BSF larvae was obtained from BW-V in S-I. The BW-IV gave an yield of only 11.6 g larva during the S-I. The economic analysis revealed that production cost of one unit of CP with BSF larva was Rs. 0.30 to 0.45 which was lower than that of soyabean (Rs 1.00). This study concluded that nutrient recycling using BSF larva in food waste (BW-V) was economically viable.ThesisItem Open Access LACTATION PERFORMANCE AND MILK COMPOSITION OF ATTAPPADY BLACK GOATS(COLLEGE OF VETERINARY AND ANIMAL SCIENCES MANNUTHY, THRISSUR, 2017-08-30) SUDHARSAN M.; A. KannanThesisItem Open Access EFFECTIVENESS OF ILLUMINATED FLY TRAPS FOR THE CONTROL OF DIPTERAN BITING FLY ANNOYANCE IN DAIRY FARMS(COLLEGE OF VETERINARY AND ANIMAL SCIENCES MANNUTHY, THRISSUR, 2021-10-10) PRAVEENKUMAR N. B; A. PrasadSmall dipteran biting flies of the genera Culex, Culicoides, Phlebotomus Simulium, Stomoxys and Haematobia cause annoyance to domestic animals and animal handlers. Besides, these they act also as vectors of infectious diseases. Effective fly control methods with reduced reliance on chemical control need to be developed to reduce fly population. So a study was conducted on various aspects of dipteran fly annoyance in cattle to develop and evaluate the effectiveness of an innovative illuminated fly trap for the control of dipteran biting flies in dairy farms. The study comprised of a preliminary survey among 100 livestock farmers of Thrissur district selected randomly by using a structured interview schedule regarding the fly annoyance. The survey revealed that dung pits (74 per cent) and biogas plants (26 per cent) were the predominant waste management practices adopted by dairy farmers. Majority of respondents (54 per cent) disposed the animal waste at a distance of less than 10 m from the shed. The flies were prevalent in all the farms (100 per cent) followed by ticks (87 per cent). All the respondents practised chemical methods to control flies in their farms, while only 7 per cent of the respondents resorted to mechanical methods. Six per cent of the respondents used light and colour for trapping the flies as a mechanical method. The major constraints faced by dairy farmers with regard to use of fly traps were the unavailability of traps (94%) and complexity in preparing the traps (94%) followed by lack of knowledge about illuminative traps (93%) and unawareness about modern trapping methods (93%). In the present study illuminated fly traps were prepared by using red, blue and yellow coloured plastic pots containing white LED bulbs of 3 W, 5 W and 7 W with castor oil spread on the surface of the pots. Effectiveness of colour and intensity combination was tested in six farms selected randomly (with more than ten cows) of Thrissur district of Kerala in a 3X3 factorial design. Black pot without light acted as control. Detailed study was also conducted at University Livestock Farm (ULF&FRDS) of College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy. Ten spots equidistant from each other were selected in the farm with one trap catering to three animals forming a treatment group. T5 (blue with 5 W; 405 - 411 lx) was found to be the most effective combination. The common dipteran flies of veterinary importance trapped belonged to the family Culicidae, Muscidae and Psychodidae. Besides this, small insects belonging to order Hymenoptera, Lipidoptera, Hemiptera and Coleoptera were also identified. All the seven fly avoidance behaviours were significantly higher in control group when compared with treatment group and it was significantly so at 1 PM. Fly activity was predominantly higher during 6 PM - 10 PM. Expenditure for installing the traps in a cattle farm having ten cattle, was estimated to be only Rs. 1990 per year. Hence light traps can cost effectively replace the use of insecticide to a great extent. Illuminated fly trap is cheap, ecofriendly and effective method against small biting flies causing annoyance in cattle of tropical humid zoneThesisItem Open Access CONSERVATION ECOLOGY BASED ON PARASITE-NUTRIENT-SEASONAL INTERACTIONS IN NILGIRI TAHR (Nilgiritragus hylocrius)(COLLEGE OF VETERINARY AND ANIMAL SCIENCES MANNUTHY, THRISSUR, 2017-12-30) BIJU S.; P. C. SaseendranThe study was conducted to evolve suitable strategies for the conservation of the endangered Nilgiri tahr (Nilgiritragus hylocrius Ogilby, 1838) by investigating the primary interaction of the species with its parasites, forages and the season. The three habitats of Eravikulam, Nelliampathi and Kochupamba were selected and the study was conducted in the three seasons of summer, monsoon and post-monsoon. The indicators selected were incidence of parasitism, the degree of parasitic infection, the nutrient composition of forage, health status of the herd, stress level of animals, habitat features, herd structure and the general behavior of the herd. The indices in this regard were examined and recorded across the seasons. The herd size recorded ranged from 12 in Kochupamba to 36 in Eravikulam with adult females comprising nearly half of the herd. The habitats were typically of grass lands with short grasses adjacent to rocky cliffs. The activity budget was recorded to assess the behavior of the animals and it revealed grazing (37.4%) and resting (23.3%) as the prominent activity in tahr with very low share of browsing (0.8%) in the species. The activity budget also observed minor shifts between seasons, habitats and in age-sex class. The predominant grass species in each habitat were identified and the nutrient composition of the grasses was analysed showing significant difference between seasons in dry matter, crude protein, crude fibre, ether extract, total ash and nitrogen free extract. The body condition score (BCS) of all the animals ranged from three to five indicating the herds to be healthy across all seasons. There were no reports of disease or mortality in the animals in the study period. A total parasitic incidence of 38.9 per cent was observed and the degree of infection was assessed to be mild as indicated by the eggs per gram (EPG) below 1000 in the observed data. Strongyles and coccidia were the major parasites with 34.3 per cent and 15.5 per cent incidence respectively and the other parasites recorded were Moniezia, Trichuris, Capillaria, and Strongyloides. There was significant difference in parasitic incidence between habitats and seasons, with higher share in monsoon (58.9%) followed by summer (40%) and post-monsoon (17.8%). Eggs per gram also observed significant seasonal difference with higher count in monsoon (360.64) followed by post-monsoon (232.81) and summer (114.29). The faecal cortisol metabolite level estimated by enzyme immunoassay was significantly different between habitats, with Eravikulam recording a higher mean value of 472.17 ng/g, and the difference was non-significant between seasons. Significantly higher faecal cortisol metabolite was observed in parasite infected animals compared to non-infected animals. The study identified the significant presence of parasites in tahr population, indicating the dynamism and balance in equilibrium of host-parasite relationship which is a major driver in the organization of the ecosystem. The energy flow dynamics across seasons and habitats significantly influence the interrelationship of the host and parasite.
