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ThesisItem Open Access STUDIES ON THE SHEEP PRODUCTION PRACTICES IN PRAKASM DISTRICT OF ANDHRA PRADESH(Sri Venkateswara Veterinary University, TIRUPATI – 517 502,A.P, 2012-07) KRISHNA RAO, CHIRITHOTI.S; GANGA RAJU, G (Major); RAVINDRA REDDY, Y; PUNYA KUMARI, BABSTRACT : An attempt has been made in the present study to find out the sheep production practices in Prakasam district of Andhra Pradesh. A total of 225 sheep farmers were selected from 15 mandals in three revenue divisions. The average age of shepherd was 41.43 ± 0.74 years. Majority of shepherds were illiterates (52.89%) followed by primary (24.89%), secondary (16.89%) and college (5.33%) level education. Nearly 65 per cent of the shepherds belonged to Backward Communities and 23.56, 9.78 and 2.22 per cent belongs to other castes, Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribes, respectively. The average family size in sheep farmers was 4.85 ± 0.32 with mean male and females of 1.37 ± 0.09, 1.36 ± 0.09 and 1.22 ± 0.08, 2.12 ± 0.14 in adult and young groups, respectively. The main occupation was sheep rearing (50.22%) followed by agriculture and animal husbandry (29.33%), agriculture (10.67%) and agricultural labourers (9.78%) in the study area. Only 13.33 per cent of the sheep farmers possessed leased land and 43.56 per cent had their own lands and remaining 43.11 per cent were landless. The mean wet and dry land possessed by the sheep farmer was 1.74 ± 0.13 acres and the land holding sheep farmers belongs to marginal farmers (73.44%), small farmer (16.41%) and semi medium farmer (10.16%) categories, respectively. The other livestock holding by the sheep farmers includes cattle 2.08 ± 0.42, buffaloes 1.93 ± 0.42 and goats 7.13 ± 0.47. Sheep production system followed in study area was extensive management type. Based on category of sheep the flock consists of 1.35 ± 0.45 rams, 44.34 ± 1.10 ewes, 7.11 ± 0.48 young male and 12.52 ± 0.52 young female stock and with an overall flock size of 64.91± 1.66. The overall mean of sheep in the flocks was 48.98 ± 1.47 Nellore Jodipi and 15.95 ± 1.00 Nellore crosses type. The Housing pattern with sheep farmers was permanent (13.33%), temporary housing (86.67%) and houses were open type (52.44%) and with gravel flooring. Sixty per cent farmers followed soil replacement. Majority of the sheep farmers (86.77 %) were using thatched roofs. Most of the farmers (83.11%) followed continuous grazing and 16.89 per cent followed split grazing. Sheep were allowed for grazing in summer months for 7.48 ± 0.06 hrs and in other seasons 6.24 ± 0.03 hrs. Only 28.44 per cent of sheep farmers were feeding with concentrate to their rams. Tree leaf feeding to young lambs was observed in 50.67 per cent of sheep flocks. Majority of sheep farmers (88.44%) followed migration and traveled an average distance of (65.83%) less than 50 Km, (17.59%) of 50-100 km and (16.58%) of more than 100 Km. The migration period of sheep flocks was (78.39%) upto three months and (21.61%) above 3 months. The average number of breeding rams was 1.35 ± 0.04 and majority was 4 teeth. Majority of farmers (40.0%) purchased the rams from other sheep flocks and (28.44%) used their own rams. Majority (61.78 %) of shepherds followed replacement of rams while (32.37%) with seasonal frequency. The lifetime lambings per ewe was 6.40 ± 0.05. The mean breedable female sheep available in farmer flocks was 34.00 ± 0.81. Among the female breeding stock, lambings were ranged from 18.97 ± 0.81 to 28.53 ± 0.88. The average Age at First Mating and Age at First Lambing in ewes was 15.60 ± 0.11 and 23.07 ± 0.11months, respectively. The prolificacy in the ewes was 96.00 per cent as single births and 4.00 percent twin births. Mean lambings were observed in winter (38.96 ± 0.32) followed by summer (15.93 ± 0.46) and rainy (13.04 ± 0.17) seasons. The mean body weights in Nellore cross rams was 35.80 ± 0.88, 43.87 ± 0.67, 50.39 ± 0.59 and 56.01 ± 1.56 kg at age of 2 teeth, 4 teeth, 6 teeth and 8 teeth and in ewes at corresponding ages were 28.68 ± 0.49, 31.20 ± 0.36, 35.68 ± 0.41 and 41.35 ± 0.28 kg, respectively. In young lambs the overall mean body weights were 2.99 ± 0.05, 13.22 ± 0.19, 19.16 ± 0.21, 22.62 ± 0.34 , 27.07 ± 0.46 kg and 2.63 ± 0.05, 12.52 ± 0.14, 18.92 ± 0.24, 21.81 ± 0.29 and 25.73 ± 0.35 kg in male and females at birth, 3 months, 6 months, 9 months and 12 months age groups, respectively. The average body weight in Nellore jodipi rams was 33.29 ± 0.63, 40.00 ± 0.71, 46.00 ± 0.89 and 51.25 ± 0.59 kg and 26.03 ± 0.54, 30.02 ± 0.53, 33.68 ± 0.55 and 39.20 ± 0.64 kg in adult ewes at 2 teeth, 4 teeth, 6 teeth and 8 teeth age groups, respectively. In young lambs the overall mean body weights were 2.95 ± 0.07, 12.93 ± 0.28, 18.45 ± 0.45, 20.96 ± 0.75 , 25.11 ± 0.56 kg and 2.59 ± 0.06, 12.05 ± 0.18, 15.72 ± 0.23, 18.57 ± 0.41 and 23.08 ± 0.51 kg in male and females at birth, 3 months, 6 months, 9 months and 12 months age groups, respectively. Most of the shepherds were not vaccinating (39.56%) and deworming (22.67%) their sheep. Sheep were vaccinated against the diseases viz. Entero Toxaemia (23.96%), Haemorrhagic septicemia (22.19%), Foot and Mouth Disease (4.44), Pestis des Petitis Ruminantis (23.37 %) and sheep pox (26.04 %). Majority (77.33%) of the sheep farmers expressed the problem with ticks and fleas (19.56 %). Only 19.56 per cent sheep farmers were carried out deticking. Disposal of sheep was in the frequency of monthly (29.91%), quarterly (6.00%), half yearly (16.44%) and annually (19.32%). The average number of sheep disposed was 11.81 ± 3.71 in all category of age. The sale price of sheep followed by the shepherds was by age, sex and live weight of the animals with 100.00, 68.44 and 31.56, per cent respectively. The mean sale price of different age group of sheep was Rs. 6286.96± 689.12, Rs. 4590 ± 965.51, Rs.1722.38 ± 106.35 and Rs.1546.85 ± 103.84 for rams, ewes, ram lambs and ewe lambs, respectively. Majority of the marketing sheep were reached to the shandies by walk (65.78%) and by different type of transport vehicles (34.22 %). About 56.88 per cent of the sheep farmers were using the sheep manure for agricultural purposes. The average sale price of manure per cart load and truck load was Rs.163.98 ± 2.77 and Rs. 572.92 ± 10.84, respectively. The overall manure disposal frequency was 3.17 ± 0.09 for cart and 6.50 ± 0.52 for truck loads. Majority of the farmers (16.02%) expressed financial problems. Markapur division shepherds (15.51%) were facing water scarcity in summer months. The other problems were lack of grazing resources (12.30%), Veterinary services (11.33%), Housing (10.94%) and Drinking water resources (10.55%), while the other less intensity problems were limited/non availability of breeding rams, diseases, marketing, migration and labour with the percentages of 10.16, 8.98, 7.81, 6.84 and 5.08, respectively.ThesisItem Open Access A STUDY ON IMPACT OF DAIRY COOPERATIVE SOCIETIES IN THE EMPOWERMENT OF WOMEN – “SUCCESS STORY OF MULUKANOOR WOMEN COOPERATIVE DAIRY”(Sri Venkateswara Veterinary University, TIRUPATI – 517 502,A.P, 2012-01) SURESH RATHOD; SARJAN RAO, K (Major); RAVINDRA REDDY, Y; SHARMA, G.R.K; PUNYA KUMARI, BABSTRACT : The present study aimed to investigate the impact of dairy cooperative societies in the empowerment of women by taking the success story of “Mulukanoor Women Cooperative Dairy” situated at Mulukanoor village of Bheemdevarpally mandal, Karimnagar district in Andhra Pradesh by adopting Ex. post–facto design. The study was conducted in 40 villages, 50 each from 40 villages equal to 2000 members and 850 non members selected randomly and the data was collected by pretested interview schedules developed for a detailed study on the perceptions of members about dairying from both members and non members. The study also emphasized the problems faced in cooperatives, technical know how on the feeding, breeding, health care management of dairy animals. The successful factors attributed to socio economic upliftment of the women members in the areas of input services and marketing provided by MWCD were identified and analyzed. The milk production, consumption and disposal pattern among the member groups Vs non member groups and cost economics of milk production were calculated. Required information was also collected from Mulukanoor Dairy Cooperative Society (union) Annual Administrative and Financial Reports from 2002-2010. The data obtained were analyzed by suitable standard statistical procedures, Cobb-Douglas production function for analyzing optimal resource use efficiency, qualitative methods to measure the Standard Plate Count (SPC), Coliform and MBRT both at society level and union level. Final conclusions were drawn and suggestions were given in a module for further improvement of MWCD. The profile study on MWCD showed that the membership enrollment of 8426 at its establishment in 2002 has been enhanced to 19616 in 2010-11. A 2.5 fold increase in the milk procurement was recorded in a decade (2002-2010) from 10.68 (‘000) Lt. to 26.06 (‘000) Lt. during 2010-2011. The per day milk sales (Lt) varied from 4.3 (‘000) in 2002 to 55.42 (‘000) during 2010 showed thirteen folds of growth. The financial turnover during 2010-11 was Rs.198.34 crores. The asset value increased from Rs.4.16 crores in 2002 to Rs.20.39 crores in 2011. The financial position of union is strong and showed 13.29 percent growth in share capital and 19.80 per cent growth in Vikasa Podupu (savings scheme) by clearing all the debts. The employment generation has been increased from 28 in 2003 to 70 by 2011 at the society level and from 122 in 2003 to 180 by 2011 at union level. The higher net profit ratio and returns on total assets indicate the profitability. On the other hand, the gross profit margin ratio rose to its peak in the early years of establishment with 1:16.1 ratio, there after noticed a decline trend (1:6.23). The employees perceptions were drawn towards the work nature and satisfaction level at MWCD. 80 percent employees were trained in dairy activity and they were quite satisfied with the work and 62 percent expressed that the treatment of higher authorities towards them is very good. The special efforts put in by the employees in the success of the dairy included, “reporting the defects to the authorities, hard work and regular and prompt advises to the farmers on their problems related to dairying”. The respondents in study were 50.65 and 46.94 percent of marginal farmers from member and non member groups respectively. Similarly, 54.25 and 54.82 percent belonged to backward class in member and non member groups, respectively. Middle age group were predominant (62.30 Vs 83.53%) with medium size family (46.40 Vs 50.82%), followed by small family size (32.25 Vs 21.53%) when compared member Vs non member group. Among the tested respondents, higher number of members group were possessing the educational status of primary education (49 Vs 38.88%) than non members. More number (62.12%) of respondents were illiterates in non member respondents category. According to annual income, majority of respondents belonged to medium level income groups (72.30). The animal holdings of respondents were maximum upto two in members group, where in 14.4 per cent of respondents posses four and above animals and no non member posses more than three animals. The buffalo is the dominant species in both the categories. The total milk production, family consumption, per capita consumption, animal holdings and income from milk values per day were 3.38 Lt, 0.32 Lt, 58.2 ml, 0.63 and Rs.97.43 which were significantly (P<0.01) higher in members group when compared to non members. The milk production recorded was higher in the members group than non member group (9.76 Vs 6.38 Lt per day). In this study, it was observed that as the herd size increased the milk production also increased. The young age members group produced higher quantity of milk (9.52 Lt) when compared to middle age (9.16 Lt). The average milk production per day was 2.41 Lt which was higher in member group when compared to non members based on their social status. The scheduled caste and scheduled tribe farmers also produced more milk in comparison to other castes. The landless members produced more milk (11.77 Vs 5.53 Lt) when compared to other categories (marginal farmers) on land holding basis. The large family size group produced more milk (10.44 Vs 7.24 Lt) when compared to the small and medium sized family respondents. Respondents with higher secondary educational level have produced more volume of milk with more consumption and sales. The per capita consumption observed was more (353 Vs 255 ml /day) in members group than non members due to increase in herd size and inturn total milk production. The consumption was higher in marginal farmers in members group (305 ml/day) and small farmers (302 ml/day) in non members group, who are meeting the ICMR recommendations. Large family size respondents were consuming more milk when compared to small and medium family size, where as in case of SC, ST, BC and OC social status members higher level of milk consumption was noted against non members. Surplus milk was recorded more with non members group showed the trend that as the number of animals increased, the surplus also got increased. Marketable surplus was more in landless farmers i.e. 2.17 Lt followed by 1.71 Lt in small farmers in members group, whereas in non members group marginal farmers possessed (2.39 Lt) more surplus milk. According to social status, SCs and BCs have lower quantity of surplus milk when compared to ST and OCs in member and non members. The higher secondary educated respondents in members group and illiterates in non member group were unable to market and retaining more milk as marketable surplus. The maximum share of milk (80-85%) in members group was channelised through market infrastructure created by cooperative dairy and in non member group through milk vendors and private dairies (75-85%). Two and above animal holders sold milk to societies, one animal holders (24.48%) supplied to private agencies. Average price offered for milk by cooperative is lower when compared to the other agencies in study area (Rs.29.72 Vs 30.19 Lt). Profit gain from milk production was also more in members compared to non-members (Rs.10.39 Vs 8.60 Lt) establishes the fact that, as the number of animals increased the profit also get increased. The farmers belonging to other castes have earned more profits (Rs.6.87/Lt milk) when compared to weaker sections (Rs.4.08/Lt of milk). Similar trends in profit gain for large family size and higher educational level respondents were recorded. Price paid for milk was more in non member group when compared to member group, irrespective of their socio economic variables. The cost of milk production (Rs/Lt) was less in the members group with higher education (12.8), large animal holders (14.25) and those belonging to other castes (18.70). The net return per day was Rs.51.76, noted as higher in the members than non members. The average man days of employment gain was comparatively more in the members group (0.45 Vs 0.36) than non members. The farmers of the member group followed regular deworming (34.2%) and vaccination (89.20%) of animals but could not follow the ideal managemental practices for the calf management, feeding, breeding and housing of dairy animals. The variables responsible for socio economic upliftment of members as perceived by them were in the order of respectful treatment from family members (98.9%), knowledge about dairy cooperative organization (98.85%), participation in the management and administration of cooperative affairs (97.75%), meeting the financial crisis confidently (97.7%) talking only if asked (96.35%), improvement in child education (95.95%), reduction in domestic violence (94.2%), improvement in good and clean food habit (82.6%) and improvement in purchase of household articles as goods (79.3%).The major constraint as perceived by the respondents was regarding the shortage of feeding resources and the pricing policy adopted by the cooperative dairy. The correlation coefficients of independent variables such as educational status, herd size and landholding were positively correlated with milk production. The inputs were positively correlated with total milk production and income from milk in both member and non members groups. The coefficients of cost of dry fodder, concentrate and labour cost showed a positive and significant (P<0.01) relationship with cost of milk production, whereas cost of green fodder, showed negative sign in member and non member groups. The percent increase in dry fodder and labour cost resulted in increase of the cost of milk production by 0.1319 and 0.0926 percent, respectively and about 0.73 percent of variation in cost of milk production was explained by the independent variables in members whereas in non member it was 0.32 percent. The resources utilization in member and non member groups was more than optimum level for the milk production. The estimated coefficients of cost of green fodder (0.1579), labour (0.4918), land holding (0.0847) and cost of insurance (0.8960) were positive and significantly (P<0.01) correlated with net profit, by keeping other estimates constant and negative. One percent increase in green fodder, labour cost and land holding increased the net profit by 0.1579, 0.4918 and 0.0847 percent, respectively. About 0.64 percent of the variation in net profit were due to independent variables. The fat percentage and SNF of milk at society level prior to collection was 6.66 to 8.83 percent. The processed milk of the union showed standards of good quality and graded as “very good” with minimum level of SPC, E coli MBRT and acidity.ThesisItem Open Access DEVELOPMENT AND ULTRASONIC ASSESSMENT OF THE PRECISION OF BODY CONDITION SCORE (BCS) SYSTEM AS A PREDICTOR FOR PRODUCTION, REPRODUCTION AND HEALTH PERFORMANCE OF MURRAH BUFFALOES(Sri Venkateswara Veterinary University, TIRUPATI – 517 502,A.P, 2009-02) ANITHA, A; SARJAN RAO, K (Major); SURESH, J; MOORTHY, P.R.S; KOTI LINGA REDDY, YABSTRACT: Body Condition Score (BCS) system is a subjective scoring method of evaluating the energy reserves of dairy animals which provide the better understanding of biological relationship between body fat, milk production and reproduction that helps in adopting the optimum managemental practices to derive maximum production and maintain better health status. In the present study new BCS system was developed for Murrah buffaloes. The skeletal check points were identified by spotting out the anatomical features which enabled to assess the fat reserves easily and by measuring the amount of fat reserves in slaughtered animals. The scores were assigned in a 1 to 5 scale based on the amount of fat reserves in slaughtered animals. The skeletal check points identified were kept in order based on the amount of carcass fat reserves and scores assigned to prepare preliminary BCS chart in a 1 to 5 scale using 0.25 increments. The BCS chart was further modified by correcting the demerits and a new BCS chart in a 1 to 5 scale using 0.5 increments examining eight skeletal check points was developed. BCS was assigned using the chart developed and the new BCS system developed was found to be precise and consistent. The new BCS system developed was subjected for precision in 10 buffaloes for each point of the 1-5 scale by ultrasonographic measurements of body fat reserves. The ultrasonographic measurements showed that the fat reserves were higher at the point between tail head to pins and as the BCS increased the amount of fat reserves also increased indicating that BCS adequately reflected in the amount of actual fat reserves. BCS was significantly correlated (0.86) with the carcass fat reserves as well as ultrasonographic fat reserves (0.85) and ultrasonography has the potential to determine fat thickness with a high degree of accuracy. The effect of BCS at calving on the reproductive performance studied in 24 buffaloes in a 4 x 6 CRD showed that increase in body weight of 80.33 kg was observed for every one unit increase of BCSc between BCSc groups of 2.5 – 2.99 and 3.5 – 3.99 and 82.34 kg between BCSc groups of 3.0 – 3.49 and 4.0 – 4.49. Buffaloes of BCSc above 3.5 with significantly (P < 0.01) higher body weights showed better reproductive performance compared to buffaloes of BCSc groups below 3.5 with less body weights. The prepartum and weekly postpartum changes in BCS studied showed that the buffaloes gained a BCS of 0.57 from 3 months prepartum to one week prepartum, lost 0.17 BCS due to calving, further showed a decline in BCS upto 9 weeks of postpartum and then started regaining BCS gradually until 18 weeks postpartum. The mean LBCS over the period of 18 weeks postpartum was comparatively higher (0.75 ± 0.05) than BCS restored in the early lactation which was shown as GBCS (0.34 ± 0.02). The difference of 0.41 units between LBCS and GBCS was observed over a period of 18 weeks postpartum. Buffaloes of BCSc group 3.5 – 3.99 showed the best reproduction performance among the four BCSc groups with less postpartum estrus period (46.66 days), service period (58.83 days), number of service per conception (1.50) and high rate of 1st service conception (66.66%) followed by the BCSc groups of 4.0 – 4.49, 3.0 – 3.49 and 2.5 – 2.99. Buffaloes should have the target condition scores of minimum BCS of 3.25-3.5 at three months prepartum, 3.5-3.99 at calving, 2.75 to 3.0 at around 8 weeks postpartum and 3.0 to 3.25 by 18 weeks postpartum so that they can show good reproductive performance. The resumption of ovarian activity was observed at mean values of 47.25 ± 2.39, 42.0 ± 2.91, 29.33 ± 3.33 and 39.33 ± 4.21 days for the BCSc groups of 2.5 – 2.99, 3.0 – 3.49, 3.5 – 3.99 and 4.0 – 4.49 respectively. Buffaloes of BCSc group 3.5 – 3.99 showed significantly (P < 0.05) earlier resumption of ovarian activity. The breeding efficiency was significantly (P < 0.01) higher for buffaloes of BCSc group 3.5 – 3.99. The monthly postpartum changes in BCS showed that BCS decreased from calving to two months of lactation and then gradually increased. Inverse relationship was observed between monthly BCS and milk yield. The lactation curve characteristics studied in relation to BCSc in 40 buffaloes in a 4 x 10 CRD, showed that the milk production increased from calving until two months of lactation, reaching peak production and then gradually showed a decline for all the BCSc groups of the test herd. The total milk yield upto 18 weeks of lactation was higher for the BCSc group of 3.5 - 3.99. For every one unit increase in BCSc, an increase of 395.27 kg in the 18 weeks lactation yield was observed. But as the BCSc exceeded 3.99 a decrease in milk yield was noticed. The predicted lactation yield was higher for the BCSc group of 3.5-3.99. For every one unit increase in BCSc an increase of 759.55 kg was observed in the predicted lactation yield. But as the BCSc exceeded 3.99 the predicted yield showed a decline. The peak milk yield was higher for the BCSc group 3.5-3.99. For every one unit increase in BCSc, an increase of 4.57 kg of peak yield was noticed. Further, the peak yield and persistency index showed a decrease as BCSc exceeded 3.99. For every one unit increase in BCSc an increase of milk fat per cent of 1.8 and 2.0 was observed at 6-8 weeks and 16-18 weeks after calving, respectively. For every one unit increase in BCSc an increase of milk protein / SNF of 0.55 and 0.54 was observed at 6-8 weeks and 16-18 weeks after calving respectively. As the BCS increased from 6-8 weeks after calving to 16-18 weeks after calving the milk components i.e., fat, protein and SNF showed an increasing trend. Buffaloes of BCS below 3.5 were more prone to mastitis, anoestrum and retained placenta indicating that thin buffaloes in negative energy balance were more susceptible to health disorders.ThesisItem Open Access ADAPTABILITY AND PERFORMANCE OF SAHIWAL AND JERSEY x SAHIWAL CROSSBRED COWS IN TROPICAL CONDITIONS(SRI VENKATESWARA VETERINARY UNIVERSITY , TIRUPATI – 517 502 (A.P) INDIA, 2011-08) SREEDHAR, SURATANI; SARJAN RAO, K (Major); Suresh, J; Moorthy, P R S; Padmanabha Reddy, VABSTRACT : A study was conducted on adaptability and performance of pure Sahiwal and Jersey x Sahiwal crossbred cows, performance of bulls of Sahiwal and Jersey x Sahiwal crossbreds and on farm studies on the performance of the Jersey x Sahiwal crosses in tropical conditions. The physiological responses, biochemical constituents of the above animals were recorded. The production traits, reproduction traits and milk constituents were studied on twelve cows each from Sahiwal and Jersey x Sahiwal cows using Completely Randomized Design (CRD). To study the performance of bulls, four Sahiwal bulls were selected at Dairy Experimental Station, and four Jersey x Sahiwal bulls from farmers house hold. The meteorological parameters viz. Temperature Humidity Index, Relative Humidity (%), evaporation (mm), wind velocity (kmph) and sun shine (hours) recorded during the study period of 21 days were ranged from 81.3-86.9, 37.0-61.0, 2.7-8.6, 5.1-11.3 and 2.0-9.3 with mean values of 84.4, 47.5, 6.8, 6.7 and 5.5, respectively. The rectal temperature (0F) of Sahiwal heifers, Sahiwal cows and Jersey x Sahiwal cows during the adaptability period of 21 days were ranged from 101.43±0.04 to 103.60±0.18, 101.18±0.02 to 103.13±0.16 and 101.35±0.03 to 103.65±0.18, respectively. The respiration rate of Sahiwal heifers, Sahiwal cows and Jersey x Sahiwal cows were ranged from 28.4±0.1 to 41.7±0.6, 26.8 ±0.10 to 38.8±0.40 and 28.3±0.10 to 43.5±0.40 breaths per minute, respectively. The rectal temperature and respiration rate were highly significantly (p<0.01) different among Sahiwal heifers, Sahiwal cows and Jersey x Sahiwal cows. The changes in pulse rate of Sahiwal heifers, Sahiwal cows and Jersey x Sahiwal cows were ranged from 59.33± 0.45 to 76.00±1.50, 59.67 ±0.31 to 75.33±1.56 and 60.67±0.40 to 78.17±1.36 per minute, respectively. A non significant difference was observed for pulse rate between Sahiwal heifers and Sahiwal cows whereas a highly significant (p<0.01) variation was recorded with Jersey x Sahiwal crossbred cows in relation to environmental traits. Temperature Humidity Index (THI) was highly significantly (p<0.01) correlated with rectal temperature, respiration rate and pulse rate in Sahiwal heifers and Sahiwal cows and significantly (p<0.05) correlated in Jersey x Sahiwal crossbred cows. The average temperature significantly (p<0.05) influenced the rectal temperature, respiration rate and pulse rate in all the three groups of experimental animals, while the evaporation was significantly (p<0.05) correlated with rectal temperature, respiration rate and pulse rate of Jersey x Sahiwal crossbred cows. Negative correlation was observed between wind velocity and rectal temperature, respiration rate and pulse rate of three groups of experimental animals. The sunshine was found to have highly significant (p<0.01) correlation with rectal temperature, respiration rate and pulse rate of Jersey x Sahiwal crossbred cows. The IHTC and BCA of Sahiwal heifers, Sahiwal cows and Jersey x Sahiwal cows were ranged from 74.00±0.42 to 95.67±1.8, 94.2±0.5 to 95.5±0.5 and 73.50±0.31 to 96.50±2.89 and 2.24±0.01 to 2.84±0.03, 2.17±0.01 to 2.72±0.02 and 2.24±0.01 to 2.92±0.02, respectively. The IHTC and BCA values were highly significantly (p<0.01) different among Sahiwal heifers, cows and Jersey x Sahiwal crossbred cows. The DSI of Sahiwal heifers, cows and Jersey x Sahiwal cows were ranged from 0.95±0.01 to 1.11±0.01, 0.94±0.01 to 1.09±0.01 and 0.95±0.01 to 1.11±0.01, respectively. The DSI values were comparable between Sahiwal heifers and Sahiwal cows but highly significantly (p<0.01) different with Jersey x Sahiwal crossbred cows. The average values of IHTC, BCA and DSI in Sahiwal heifers, Sahiwal cows and Jersey x Sahiwal cows became nearest to their respective optimum values of 100, 2.0 and 1.0, respectively, within short period (3 days) in Sahiwal cows and longer period (9 days) for Jersey x Sahiwal cows. The haematocrit values (%) of Sahiwal heifers, Sahiwal cows and Jersey x Sahiwal cows were ranged from 29.17±1.22 to 68.00±1.06, 31.00±1.46 to 67.00±1.06 and 31.17±1.17 to 75.83±0.59, respectively. A non significant difference was observed in haematocrit values of Sahiwal heifers and cows, whereas a highly significant (p<0.01) variation was recorded with Jersey x Sahiwal crossbred cows. The serum glucose, urea and creatinine levels (mg/dl) of Sahiwal heifers, Sahiwal cows and Jersey x Sahiwal cows were ranged from 61.90±1.34 to 97.32±0.63, 58.61±1.20 to 96.90±0.65 and 59.26±0.58 to 113.33±0.71, 11.72±0.94 to 47.21±0.64, 11.70±0.65 to 45.44±0.42 and 14.00±0.58 to 63.99±0.41 and 1.25±0.07 to 9.81±0.13, 1.29±0.09 to 9.90±0.17 and 1.43±0.10 to 16.18±0.15, respectively. The average serum glucose values were highly significantly (p<0.01) different among all the experimental animals during adaptability. The serum calcium, phosphorous and magnesium levels (mg/dl) of Sahiwal heifers, Sahiwal cows and Jersey x Sahiwal cows were ranged from 10.59±0.29 to 27.17±0.29, 10.84±0.27 to 26.61±0.46 and 10.45±0.33 to 36.76±0.71, 5.85±0.05 to 18.91±0.21, 5.94±0.08 to 18.87±0.12 and 5.88±0.10 to 20.80±0.13 and 1.95±0.03 to 11.16±0.09, 2.00±0.06 to 10.85±0.19 and 1.95±0.03 to 15.12±0.15, respectively. A non significant difference was observed in serum calcium and phosphorous levels for Sahiwal heifers and Sahiwal cows, whereas a highly significant (p<0.01) variation was recorded for Jersey x Sahiwal crossbred cows in relation to adaptability. The sodium and potassium levels (mg/dl) of Sahiwal heifers, Sahiwal cows and Jersey x Sahiwal cows were ranged from 140.23±2.09 to 183.62±1.25, 137.37±1.38 to 178.52±1.02 and 137.91±0.75 to 185.69±1.15 and 4.47±0.20 to 13.21±0.15, 4.38±0.08 to 12.88±0.08 and 4.41±0.13 to 18.86±0.11, respectively. The average sodium and potassium levels were highly significantly (p<0.01) different among Sahiwal heifers, Sahiwal cows and Jersey x Sahiwal cows. The influence of environmental traits on liver function tests from SGOT and SGPT levels (units/l) of Sahiwal heifers, Sahiwal cows and Jersey x Sahiwal cows were ranged from 91.15±3.62 to 178.87±1.49, 95.37±2.52 to 165.74±1.11 and 82.78±0.29 to 188.48±0.32 and 25.04±1.50 to 57.19±0.72, 27.89±2.29 to 57.27±0.77 and 17.52±0.40 to 74.72±0.93, respectively. Highly significant (p<0.01) variation was recorded with SGOT levels in Jersey x Sahiwal crossbred cows and SGPT levels of all the three experimental animals during 21 days adaptation period. The average birth weight (kg) of Sahiwal and Jersey x Sahiwal calves were 23.89±0.87 and 26.98±0.97, respectively. The mean body weight gain (kg) of Sahiwal calves and Jersey x Sahiwal crossbred calves were 34.08±5.69 and 34.47±5.99, respectively at the end of 24 weeks. The maximum body weight gain was observed at 24 weeks in Jersey x Sahiwal calves. The mean ADG of Sahiwal and Jersey x Sahiwal calves were 344±7.9 and 365±11.0, respectively. The maximum average daily gain was observed at 8-10 weeks in Sahiwal calves whereas in Jersey x Sahiwal cows, peak ADG obtained at 6-8 weeks during 16-18 weeks of growth period. The mean 90 days milk yield, lactation milk yield, peak yield, average daily milk yield and 305 days milk yield in Sahiwal cows were 793.17±7.75, 2039.5±30.14, 11.03±0.14, 6.90±0.09 and 2109±27.68 kg, respectively. The days to attain peak yield and lactation length in Sahiwal cows were 33.33±1.25 and 295.58±2.95 days and the persistence index observed as 2.53±0.04. The average 90 days milk yield, lactation milk yield, peak yield, average daily milk yield and 305 days milk yield in Jersey x Sahiwal cows were 1099.2±10.96, 3156.6±31.16, 14.21±0.14, 10.33±0.11 and 3164.8±32.53 kg, respectively. The days to attain peak yield and lactation length in Jersey x Sahiwal cows were 26.00±1.26 and 305.75±1.95 days and the persistence index observed as 3.05±0.03. At farmer’s house hold the average 90 days milk yield, lactation milk yield, peak yield, average daily milk yield and 305 days milk yield in Jersey x Sahiwal cows were 997.6±8.48, 3131.7±31.02, 10.2±0.16, 8.86±0.10 and 2777.2±26.15 kg, respectively. The days to attain peak yield and lactation length in Jersey x Sahiwal cows were 45.2±1.33 and 354±4.77 days and the persistence index observed was 2.84±0.03. The analysis of variance revealed that all the milk yield traits were highly significantly (p<0.01) different between Sahiwal and Jersey x Sahiwal cows both at dairy experimental station and Jersey x Sahiwal cows of Progeny Testing Programme at farmers house hold. The mean fat percent of the milk in Sahiwal and Jersey x Sahiwal cows was 4.91±0.19 and 4.54±0.16, respectively, whereas the fat percent was decreased from 1st to 3rd week and later gradually increased up to 13th week of lactation. Maximum fat yield (%) was observed in 12th week for Sahiwal (5.30±0.20) and 13th week for Jersey x Sahiwal crossbred (4.92±0.12) cows. The mean SNF percent of the milk in Sahiwal and Jersey x Sahiwal cows was 9.02±0.07 and 8.67±0.10, respectively, whereas the SNF percent was decreased from 1st to 3rd week and later gradually increased up to 13th week of lactation. Maximum levels of SNF were recorded during 13th week in Sahiwal cows and 7th week in Jersey x Sahiwal cows. 8.67±0.10. The protein content (%) of the milk in Sahiwal and Jersey x Sahiwal cows were 3.50±0.04 and 3.50±0.01, respectively. Maximum levels of protein were recorded during 11th week in Sahiwal cows and 7th week in Jersey x Sahiwal cows. The mean density of the milk in Sahiwal and Jersey x Sahiwal cows were 30.97±0.24 and 30.12±0.22, respectively. The fat and SNF contents of milk were highly significantly (p<0.01) different between Sahiwal and Jersey x Sahiwal cows, whereas Sahiwal cows had higher fat and SNF yield. Highly significant (p<0.01) variation was also observed between Sahiwal and Jersey x Sahiwal cows, during different weeks of lactation. Non significant difference was observed with respect to protein content of the milk in Sahiwal and Jersey x Sahiwal cows whereas highly significant (p<0.01) variation was found in the density of milk from Sahiwal and Jersey x Sahiwal cows. The mean fat (%), SNF (%), protein (%) and density of the milk in Jersey x Sahiwal cows at farmer’s household were 4.91±0.1, 7.97±0.15, 3.08±0.05 and 28.93±0.32, respectively. The mean age at first calving, gestation period, dry period, service period and calving interval (days) in Sahiwal and Jersey x Sahiwal cows at dairy experimental station were 1223.25±9.77, 282.67±0.53, 151.00±3.27, 163.92±4.20 and 446.58±4.16 and 985.17±11.41, 281.58±0.38, 123.33±5.28, 148.00±5.97 and 429.58±6.10, respectively. At farmers household, the above reproductive traits in Jersey x Sahiwal cows were 1237.9±13.09, 282.3±0.37, 198.3±3.77, 270±5.06 and 552.3±5.02 days. The results showed that the mean age at first calving, dry period, service period and calving interval in Jersey x Sahiwal cows were lower than Sahiwal cows. The mean values of the same reproductive traits in Jersey x Sahiwal cows of Progeny Testing Programme were higher than the mean values of Sahiwal cows. The mean gestation period was similar in all groups. The analysis of variance revealed highly significant (p<0.01) variation among the cows of three groups for all the reproductive traits except for gestation period. Highly significant (p<0.01) correlations were observed among lactation milk yield, average daily milk yield, 305 days milk yield and persistence index in Sahiwal cows. The dry period, service period and calving interval of Sahiwal cows were highly significantly (p<0.01) correlated. Lactation length was significantly (p<0.05) correlated with service period and calving interval and negatively correlated with days to attain peak yield. Highly significant (p<0.01) correlations were observed among lactation milk yield, average daily milk yield and 305 days milk yield. The dry period, service period and calving interval were highly significantly (p<0.01) correlated. Further it was also observed that the lactation length was significantly (p<0.05) correlated with service period and calving interval. Highly significant (p<0.01) correlation was observed between average daily milk yield and 305 days milk yield. The significant (p<0.05) correlation was observed among lactation length, average daily milk yield and persistence index. The service period was highly significantly (p<0.01) correlated with calving interval. Further it was observed that the lactation length was highly significantly (p<0.01) correlated with service period and significantly (p<0.05) correlated with calving interval. Average of temperament score and libido score in Sahiwal and Jersey x Sahiwal crossbred bulls were 1.42±0.05 and 3.08±0.36, and 6.96±0.18 and 7.33±0.14, respectively. Highly significant (p<0.01) difference in temperament score and no significant difference in libido score were observed in Sahiwal and Jersey x Sahiwal crossbred bulls. Similarly no significant difference was recorded between the bulls for the same traits. The average of erection score, protrusion score, Intensity of Thrust score and reaction time (seconds) in Sahiwal and Jersey x Sahiwal crossbred bulls were 2.71±0.10 and 3.71±0.08, 2.58±0.14 and 3.59±0.05, 3.46±0.08, and 23.85±0.82 and 7.29±1.42, respectively. The results showed that significant (p<0.01) difference exists for the above sexual traits of Sahiwal and Jersey x Sahiwal crossbred bulls with a non significant difference between the bulls for the same traits. Average dismounting time and total time taken for mounts (seconds) in Sahiwal and Jersey x Sahiwal bulls were 3.17±0.17 and 2.67±0.15, and 55.00±2.21 and 36.75±5.24, respectively. Analysis of variance revealed no significant difference in dismounting time but with regard to total time taken for mounts, a highly significant (p<0.01) difference was noticed between Sahiwal and Jersey x Sahiwal crossbred bulls. The physical appearance of semen revealed that 25 percent were thick creamy, 33.33 percent were thin creamy and milky and only 8.33 percent were watery in Sahiwal bulls. Similarly in Jersey x Sahiwal bulls, 29.17 percent were thick creamy and milky, 33.33 percent were thin creamy and only 8.33 percent were watery. No significant difference was observed in the physical appearance of semen in Sahiwal and Jersey x Sahiwal crossbred bulls. The average semen volume (ml) and mass activity in Sahiwal and Jersey x Sahiwal crossbred bulls were 3.68±0.04 and 4.95±0.05, and 2.54±0.04 and 3.54±0.08, respectively. The results showed that a highly significant (p<0.01) difference was observed in semen volume and mass activity of the breeds but the difference between the bulls of Sahiwal and Jersey x Sahiwal was non significant. In Sahiwal and Jersey x Sahiwal crossbred bulls the average progressive motility and concentration (million sperms/ml) were 60.30±0.15 and 63.86±0.69 percent, and 1159.38±8.05 and 961.46±6.67, respectively. Highly significant (p<0.01) difference was observed in progressive motility and sperm concentration of the Sahiwal and Jersey x Sahiwal breeds but the difference between the bulls of the same breed was non significant. In Sahiwal and Jersey x Sahiwal crossbred bulls, the average total sperm per ejaculation (millions) was 4256.56±79.35 and 4751.88±78.12, respectively. The average head abnormalities (%) in Sahiwal and Jersey x Sahiwal crossbred bulls were 4.51±0.14 and 4.53±0.13, respectively with overall mean of 4.52±0.01. The analysis of variance revealed that a highly significant (p<0.01) difference was observed in total sperm / ejaculation between the breeds with a non significant difference between the bulls of Sahiwal and Jersey x Sahiwal. Head abnormalities were highly significantly (p<0.01) differed between the bulls of two breeds whereas it was non significant between the two breeds. The average mid piece and tail abnormalities (%) in Sahiwal and Jersey x Sahiwal crossbred bulls were 13.33±0.24 and 9.38±0.31, and 3.38±0.09 and 3.70±0.05, respectively. The mid piece abnormalities were highly significantly (p<0.01) different between Sahiwal and Jersey x Sahiwal bulls whereas no significant difference was observed between the bulls. Significant (p<0.05) variation was recorded among the breeds and between the bulls of Sahiwal and Jersey x Sahiwal. Scrotal circumference had positive correlation with semen volume, sperm concentration and total number of spermatozoa in Sahiwal and Jersey x Sahiwal bulls.ThesisItem Open Access VALIDATION OF PORTABLE NEAR INFRARED REFLECTANCE SPECTROSCOPY (NIRS) FOR THE EVALUATION OF FEEDS AND FODDERS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF RUMINANT PRODUCTION SYSTEMS(SRI VENKATESWARA VETERINARY UNIVERSITY, TIRUPATI – 517 502, ANDHRA PRADESH, 2015-04) KALYANA CHAKRAVARTHI, M; RAVINDRA REDDY, Y (Major); SARJAN RAO, K; RAVI, A; PUNYAKUMARI, B; EKAMBARAM, BABSTRACT: The present study was conducted to develop the database on nutritive values of conventional and unconventional feeds and fodders for ruminants in India using source information. Nutrient composition of feeds is an essential pre-requisite for scientific feeding of livestock. Knowledge on feed resources including unconventional and lesser known ones in combination with the use of innovative and appropriate technologies like Near Infrared Reflectance Spectroscopy (NIRS) strengthens the production systems. The database created in this study can be a readyreckoner for end users. In this study, a portable Near Infrared Reflectance Spectroscopy instrument was used for the rapid prediction of nutritive values of Sorghum fodder and Sorghum silage by developing calibration models. The NIR spectra of 200 samples of fresh and dried Sorghum fodder grown in Rayalaseema region of Andhra Pradesh were obtained by collecting spectra from 350-2500 nm range by using LabSpec 4 NIRS instrument. Further, a total of 200 small quantities of Sorghum silage were prepared in the laboratory by using the corresponding Sorghum fodders and spectra were collected between 1100-2500 nm for both fresh and dried samples.The raw spectra were imported to Unscrambler 10.3 X(Camo software) from Indico pro and were organized in four data matrices (fresh Sorghum, dried Sorghum, fresh Sorghum silage, and dried Sorghum silage) and subjected to data pre-processing methods like Spectroscopic, Standard Normal Variate (SNV), Detrending and Savitzky Golay to explore the spectra quality and control of noise and random errors. The Kennard- Stone (KS) sample selection technique through Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was performed to select 50 calibration samples each for fodder and silage and were analyzed by standard laboratory procedures.The pre-treated spectra along with the laboratory values were analysed by Partial Least Square (PLS) regression technique by using Unscrambler 10.3 X(Camo software) and calibration models were developed for the nutritional attributes. The R2 coefficients of 0.57, 0.92, 0.77, 0.85, 0.88, 0.43, 0.67, 0.60 and 0.60 whereas the 1-VR values were 0.40, 0.83, 0.04, 0.28, 0.07, 0.04, 0.18, 0.05 and 0.13 for DM, CP, TA, NDF, ADF, ADL, cellulose, silica and hemicellulose, respectively for fresh Sorghum fodder samples. Among the calibration models developed for different chemical constituents in fresh Sorghum samples a good and ‘Satisfactory’ model was obtained for prediction of CP content with R2 (0.92) and 1-VR (0.83) in unknown samples. Next to the prediction of CP content, calibration models pertaining to ADF (R2=0.88), NDF (R2=0.85), TA (R2=0.77), cellulose (R2=0.67), silica (R2=0.60) and hemicellulose (R2=0.60) were in the order of their predictive ability. The R2 coefficients of 0.80, 0.97, 0.77, 0.82, 0.75, 0.49, 0.55, 0.69 and 0.32 whereas the 1-VR values were 0.75, 0.91, 0.48, 0.70, 0.25, 0.04, 0.09, 0.13 and 0.10 for DM, CP, TA, NDF, ADF, ADL, cellulose, silica and hemicellulose, respectively for dried Sorghum fodder samples. Among the calibration models developed for different chemical constituents in dried Sorghum fodder samples a ‘robust’ and ‘Satisfactory’ model was obtained for prediction of CP content with R2 (0.97) and 1- VR (0.91) in unknown samples. Next to the prediction of CP content, calibration models pertaining to NDF (R2=0.82), DM (R2=0.80), TA (R2=0.77), ADF (R2 =0.75) and silica (R2=0.69) were in the order of their predictive ability. The R2 coefficients of 0.48, 0.81, 0.88, 0.75, 0.63, 0.36, 0.66, 0.46 and 0.75 whereas the 1-VR values were 0.21, 0.44, 0.72, 0.40, 0.34, 0.04, 0.33, 0.08 and 0.46 for DM, CP, TA, NDF, ADF, ADL, cellulose, silica and hemicellulose, respectively for fresh Sorghum silage samples.Among the calibration models developed for different chemical constituents in fresh Sorghum silage samples a ‘Satisfactory’ model was obtained for prediction of TA content with R2 (0.88) and 1-VR (0.72) in unknown samples. Next to the prediction of TA content, calibration models pertaining to CP (R2=0.81), NDF (R2=0.75), hemicellulose (R2=0.75), cellulose (R2=0.66) and ADF (R2=0.63) were in the order of their predictive ability. The R2 coefficients of 0.31, 0.81, 0.71, 0.43, 0.71, 0.71, 0.82, 0.67 and 0.71 whereas the 1-VR values were 0.12, 0.65, 0.53, 0.13, 0.30, 0.18, 0.55, 0.40 and 0.28 for DM, CP, TA, NDF, ADF, ADL, cellulose, silica and hemicellulose, respectively for dried Sorghum silage samples. Among the calibration models developed for different chemical constituents in dried Sorghum silage samples a ‘Satisfactory’ model was obtained for prediction of cellulose content with R2 (0.82) and 1-VR (0.55) in unknown samples. Next to the prediction of cellulose content, calibration models pertaining to CP (R2=0.81), TA (R2=0.71), ADF (R2 =0.71), ADL (R2=0.71), hemicellulose (0.71) and silica (R2=0.67) were in the order of their predictive ability. Sorghum based complete rations were formulated for the study area based upon the prediction values obtained for CP content in Sorghum fodder and Sorghum silage to the nearest accuracy by NIRS and by using linear programming method. The complete rations suggested to the farmers are on the basis of CP and TDN requirements and are formulated for lactating cows, buffaloes and sheep. Hence, portable Near Infrared Reflectance Spectroscopy (NIRS) which is rapid, non labour intensive, relatively inexpensive in the long term and simplified technique can predict the nutritive values of unknown Sorghum fodder and Sorghum silage samples under field conditions quickly than depending on laboratory methods which are laborious and costly. The outcome of the study helps in formulation of Sorghum fodder and or Sorghum silage based complete rations effectively in a quick manner helping the farmers to take quick decisions regarding feeding their livestock and strengthening the ruminant production systems.