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Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur
The history of agricultural education in Kerala can be traced back to the year 1896 when a scheme was evolved in the erstwhile Travancore State to train a few young men in scientific agriculture at the Demonstration Farm, Karamana, Thiruvananthapuram, presently, the Cropping Systems Research Centre under Kerala Agricultural University. Agriculture was introduced as an optional subject in the middle school classes in the State in 1922 when an Agricultural Middle School was started at Aluva, Ernakulam District. The popularity and usefulness of this school led to the starting of similar institutions at Kottarakkara and Konni in 1928 and 1931 respectively.
Agriculture was later introduced as an optional subject for Intermediate Course in 1953. In 1955, the erstwhile Government of Travancore-Cochin started the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, Thiruvananthapuram and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences at Mannuthy, Thrissur for imparting higher education in agricultural and veterinary sciences, respectively. These institutions were brought under the direct administrative control of the Department of Agriculture and the Department of Animal Husbandry, respectively. With the formation of Kerala State in 1956, these two colleges were affiliated to the University of Kerala. The post-graduate programmes leading to M.Sc. (Ag), M.V.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees were started in 1961, 1962 and 1965 respectively.
On the recommendation of the Second National Education Commission (1964-66) headed by Dr. D.S. Kothari, the then Chairman of the University Grants Commission, one Agricultural University in each State was established. The State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) were established in India as an integral part of the National Agricultural Research System to give the much needed impetus to Agriculture Education and Research in the Country. As a result the Kerala Agricultural University (KAU) was established on 24th February 1971 by virtue of the Act 33 of 1971 and started functioning on 1st February 1972. The Kerala Agricultural University is the 15th in the series of the SAUs.
In accordance with the provisions of KAU Act of 1971, the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, were brought under the Kerala Agricultural University. In addition, twenty one agricultural and animal husbandry research stations were also transferred to the KAU for taking up research and extension programmes on various crops, animals, birds, etc.
During 2011, Kerala Agricultural University was trifurcated into Kerala Veterinary and Animal Sciences University (KVASU), Kerala University of Fisheries and Ocean Studies (KUFOS) and Kerala Agricultural University (KAU).
Now the University has seven colleges (four Agriculture, one Agricultural Engineering, one Forestry, one Co-operation Banking & Management), six RARSs, seven KVKs, 15 Research Stations and 16 Research and Extension Units under the faculties of Agriculture, Agricultural Engineering and Forestry. In addition, one Academy on Climate Change Adaptation and one Institute of Agricultural Technology offering M.Sc. (Integrated) Climate Change Adaptation and Diploma in Agricultural Sciences respectively are also functioning in Kerala Agricultural University.
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ThesisItem Open Access Management of calcium, magnesium and boron deficiency for enhancing yield and quality in chilli (Capsicum annuum L.)(Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, College of Agriculture ,Padanakkad, 2022-04-28) Anjitha K.; KAU; Sailaja kumari M SThe investigation entitled ‘Management of calcium, magnesium and boron deficiency for enhancing yield and quality in chilli’ was carried out at Instructional farm, Nileshwar, College of Agriculture Padannakkad, with an objective to develop nutrient management practices for mitigating calcium, magnesium and boron deficiency and to evaluate its effect on growth, yield and quality parameters. The field experiment was carried out during December 2020 to May 2021. The experiment was carried out with chilli variety Anugraha, in randomized block design with ten treatments and three replications. Treatment combinations were T1(KAU POP + lime (based on soil test)), T2 (T1 + 125 kg gypsum per hectare), T3 (T1 + 80 kg magnesium sulphate per hectare), T4 (T1 + 125 kg gypsum per hectare + 80 kg magnesium sulphate per hectare), T5 (T1 + foliar application of borax (0.2%)), T6 (T2 + foliar application of borax (0.2%)), T7 (T3 + foliar application of borax (0.2%)), T8 (T4 + foliar application of borax (0.2%)), T9 (KAU POP + dolomite (based on soil test)) and T10 (T9 + foliar application of borax (0.2%)). Soil application of amendments were done as a single dose and foliar nutrition was given four times in a 20 days interval. Analysis of experimental results showed that various treatments showed significant effect on growth characters, fruit quality parameters as well as nutrient content in both soil and plant, over KAU POP recommendation. Significant positive effect of treatments on plant root characters and total dry matter production was observed whereas plant height and days to 50% flowering were found to be non significant. Among the treatments, maximum tap root length (13.50 cm), root volume (23.23 cm3 ), root shoot ratio (0.16) and total dry matter production (2694.65 kg ha-1 ) were recorded in T8 (KAU POP + lime application based on soil test) +125 kg gypsum per hectare + 80 kg magnesium sulphate per hectare + foliar application of borax (0.2%). Various treatments showed significant influence on yield and yield attributes. Maximum fruit weight (37.16 g) and total fruit yield (4456.79 kg ha-1 ) was also observed in T8 and in case of fruit yield, it was significantly superior to all other treatments. Combined application of gypsum, magnesium sulphate and borax were effective and maximized fruit yield. 94 Soil analysis was carried out at flowering and harvest wherein, the treatments showed significant effect on soil pH, EC, available potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulphur, iron, manganese and zinc content whereas available nitrogen, phosphorus, copper and boron were not influenced by treatments. Addition of calcium and magnesium sources significantly increased available calcium and magnesium content in soil. Among the various treatments, the highest available calcium was recorded in T8 and was on par with T2, T6 and T4 at flowering. Highest available magnesium content was recorded in T9 and T10 at flowering and harvest respectively. Analysis of Index leaves at flowering and total plant analysis at harvest were carried out and it was found that plant nutrient content was significantly influenced by treatments. Significant effect of various treatments on plant nutrients except nitrogen and phosphorus was observed. Foliar application of borax significantly improved boron content in plants. Fruit quality parameters such as capsaicin, oleoresin, ascorbic acid and shelf life and total nutrient content were analysed and results showed significant positive response to treatments. Analysis of nutrient content in fruits showed that primary nutrients mainly, nitrogen and potassium, secondary nutrients and micronutrients in fruits were significantly influenced by various treatments. The treatment, T8 (KAU POP + lime based on soil test) +125 kg gypsum per hectare + 80 kg magnesium sulphate per hectare + foliar application of borax (0.2%)) recorded highest capsaicin (0.352 %), oleoresin (11.00 %), ascorbic acid (96.83 mg 100 g-1 ) and maximum shelf life (13.66 days) in chilli. The results obtained from the experiment revealed the significant influence of soil amendments over KAU POP recommendation and it can be concluded that combined application of gypsum, magnesium sulphate and borax was effective for increasing fruit yield and quality in chilliThesisItem Open Access Controlling seedling height of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.) transplants using plant growth regulators(Department of Vegetable Science, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, 2022-04-28) Anu Latha Robi; KAU; C NarayanankuttyCowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp) is an annual leguminous vegetable crop. It is grown throughout india for its tender green pods used as vegetable. Green cowpea seeds are boiled as a fresh vegetable or may be canned or frozen. The beans are nutritious and provide complementary proteins to cereals diets. Seedlings like cowpea, cucurbits having lanky growth growing in polyhouses is an undesirable quality, especially in plugs intended for mechanized planting and long distance transport. Seed treatment with growth retardants is an effective method for controlling seedling height .However limited studies have been conducted in vegetable crops The present study was undertaken with the objectives of controlling seedling height of vegetable cowpea and to assess the field performance of treated seedlings. The experiment was conducted at the Centre for Hi-Tech Horticulture and Precision farming, Vellanikkara KAU, Thrissur during the year 2020-2021 In seedling stage, highest germination was recorded in control treatment on 5th and 10th days after sowing (89%) and (91%) respectively in Vellayani Jyothika. Minimum germination percentage was recorded in Paclobutrazol @ 200 ppm on 5th and 10th day after sowing (64.3%) and (66.0%) respectively in cowpea genotype Vellayani Jyothika. Significantly lower germination percentage was recorded in treatments receiving Paclobutrazol @ 200 ppm on 5th and 10th day after sowing (70.0%) (72%) in the genotype Kashi Kanchan. In both the genotypes there were no significant difference between the treatments on 15th days after sowing. Paclobutrazol treatment took more number of days for emergence of seedling up to the first node compared to control treatment ie Paclobutrazol @ 200 ppm (8.13) and (8.00) respectively in both the genotypes. Highest shoot length was recorded in control treatment on 5th, 10th and 15 th days after germination in both the genotypes. Significantly lower shoot length was recorded in treatments receiving Paclobutrazol @ 200 ppm irrespective of the number of days after germination. Growth retardants in general reduce root growth, shoot weight and root weight of the seedlings. In both the genotypes (Vellayani Jyothika and Kashi Kanchan) significantly lower root length, shoot weight and root weight was obtained in Paclobutrazol treatments compared to non-treated control. Height of seedling up to the first node was directly linked to shoot length. In both the genotypes of the cowpea significantly lower shoot length was recorded in treatments receiving Paclobutrazol @ 200 ppm (4.09) and (4.03) respectively. Paclobutrazol treated seedlings had dark green leaves when compared to other growth regulator and control treatments on 5th ,10th and 15th days after germination. In both the cowpea genotypes, when compared to other growth retardant and control treatments highest stem girth of the seedlings was recorded in treatments receiving Paclobutrazol @ 200 ppm on 5th (3.19 mm) 10th (3.45mm) and 15th (3.7mm) in Vellayani Jyothika and on 5th (3.3mm ) 10th (3.4mm) and 15th (3.8mm) in Kashi Kanchan. There were no significant difference between the treatments on 5th (2) and 15th days (7-8) after germination in both the genotypes. The total chlorophyll content and carotenoid content was recorded highest in treatments receiving Paclobutrazol treatments on seedling stage. Minimum auxin content and gibberellic acid contents were observed in Paclobutrazol treatments. In the field experiment, in both the cowpea genotypes, plant growth regulator Ethrel recorded maximum plant height where as in Vellayani Jyothika minimum plant height was recorded in Cycocel@ 50 ppm (112.40 cm) .In Kashi Kanchan lowest plant height was recorded in Paclobutrazol @ 200 ppm (33.06 cm) in Kashi Kanchan. In vellayani Jyothika highest internodal length was recorded in Ethrel @100 ppm (3.13 cm) and Ethrel @50 ppm (3.04 cm). Minimum was recorded in Paclobutrazol@ 200 ppm (2.63 cm). In the genotype Kashi Kanchan maximum internodal length was recorded in Ethrel@ 200 ppm (3.34 cm) and minimum was recorded in Cycocel @ 100 ppm (2.53cm). Highest number of primary branches was recorded in treatments receiving Paclobutrazol @ 200 ppm which was on par with Paclobutrazol @ 100 ppm compared to control in Vellayani Jyothika. In Kashi Kanchan there were no significant differences found between the treatments. Growth retardants had significant effect on the viz days to first flowering, days to first harvest and crop duration. Early flowering results in early harvesting of pods. Plant growth retardant Cycocel @ 200 ppm (41day) and Cycocel @ 25 ppm (36.80 days) recorded earliest flowering in the field in both the genotypes. In both the genotypes delayed flowering and maximum crop duration was recorded in Paclobutrazol treatments. Pod length and pod girth are related with pod weight. Ethrel treatment had highest pod length and pod girth compared to control .The higher number of flowers, pod girth and pod length contributed to production of more number of pods which in turn resulted in higher yield per plant. In both the cowpea genotypes, highest number of pods per plant and yield per plant was recorded in Ethrel treatments (Ethrel 100 ppm) in Vellayani Jyothika followed by Paclobutrazol treatment (Paclobutrazol 100 ppm) where as in Kashi Kanchan Paclobutrazol 100 ppm was on par with Ethrel 100 ppm. From the above study it could be concluded that, Paclobutrazol 100 ppm seed treatment was effective in controlling seedling height as well to obtain good yield in vegetable cowpea.ThesisItem Open Access Population structure and genetic diversity analysis in traditional rice landraces of Kerala(Department of Plant Biotechnology, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2022-08-19) Sowmiya S; Beena, R; KAUThe study entitled "Population structure and genetic diversity analysis in traditional rice landraces of Kerala" was undertaken during 2021-22 at the Department of Plant Biotechnology and Department of Plant Physiology, College of Agriculture, Vellayani. The study was undertaken for the genotyping of fifty rice landraces using SSR markers and population structure analysis. Fifty traditional rice landraces collected from RARS, Pattambi were raised in pots and the genomic DNA from one-month-old leaf samples were isolated by CTAB method. Fifty DNA samples were screened using thirty microsatellite primers and out of which five primers (RM431, RM154, RM85, RM5735, and RM104) did not show any amplification. Also, three SSR markers viz., RM554, RM246, and RM3825 amplified monomorphic banding patterns and hence they were not considered for further analysis. Twenty-two markers which yielded polymorphic bands were thus selected for final analysis. The Polymorphism Information Content (PIC) values for polymorphic markers ranged from 0.13 to 0.49. The primers which showed the highest PIC values were RM10793 (0.49) followed by RM310 (0.49) and RM5749 (0.48). The population structure of the fifty rice landraces performed using a software (STRUCTURE V2.3.4) divided the fifty rice landraces into four sub-populations. Phenotypic data of the same genotypes were collected from the Department of Plant Physiology, College of Agriculture, Vellayani and utilized to correlate the phenotypic data with genotypic data and to identify the tolerant landraces. Cluster analysis based phenotypic data resulted in four major clusters which was found to be similar with that of cluster produced by genotypic data. Phenotypic traits such as photosynthetic rate, transpiration rate, number of panicles per plant, and spikelet fertility per centage were used to identify the landraces that were tolerant to high temperature. According to the phenotypic data, the spikelet fertility of sub-population 1 ranged between 20-30% in high temperature condition, photosynthetic rate ranged between 15-30 µmolCO2m-2 s -1 , transpiration rate ranged between 8-15 mmolH2OCO2m-2 sec-1 , and number of panicles per plant ranged from 11-20, and this sub-population is considered to be moderately heat tolerant. The spikelet fertility of sub-population 2 ranged between 11-25% in high temperature condition, photosynthetic 117 rate ranged between 10-25 µmolCO2m-2 s -1 , transpiration rate ranged between 6-10 mmolH2OCO2m-2 sec-1 , and number of panicles per plant ranged from 7-15, and this sub-population is considered to be heat susceptible. The spikelet fertility of subpopulation 3 ranged between <25% in high temperature condition, photosynthetic rate ranged between 5-10 µmolCO2m-2 s -1 , transpiration rate ranged between 0-5 mmolH2OCO2m-2 sec-1 , and number of panicles per plant ranged from 5-10, and this sub-population is considered to be highly susceptible to heat. The spikelet fertility of sub-population 4 ranged between 11-20% in high temperature condition, photosynthetic rate ranged between 5-10 µmolCO2m-2 s -1 , transpiration rate ranged between 5-8 mmolH2OCO2m-2 sec-1 , and number of panicles per plant ranged from 5-10, and this sub-population is considered to be highly susceptible to heat. The phylogenetic tree was constructed using UPGMA (Un-weighted pair group method with arithmetic mean) using NTSYSpc cluster analysis software, and the dendrogram showed that all fifty rice landraces were divided into four major clusters. The pattern of grouping landraces into the clusters was similar to that obtained in the population structure analysis. Based on the interpretation of all the data obtained, among the fifty rice landraces; LB-2000-28-TCR-6985, Kuruva, Ittikandan, Champan, LN9937-Cherumallaram (Vatharam), Cheruvellari, Kokkan, Kurutha chitteni, Kathikannan, and Vellari were grouped as moderately tolerant to high temperature.ThesisItem Open Access Institutionalization of decentralized planning in agriculture in Kerala: trends, determinants and policy imperatives(Department of Agricultural Extension, College of Agriculture,Vellanikkara, 2022-03-30) Abdul Jabbar P K.; Jiju P AlexKerala has successfully evolved a paradigm of decentralized planning by utilizing the provisions of the 73rd and 74th amendments of the constitution. Local governments have been transformed as effective instruments for formulating and implementing development programmes through people’s participation. They are empowered to discharge such functions through strategic devolution of functions, functionaries and funds. Though a robust framework has been evolved over time to make decentralized planning operational, several bottle necks related to local governance affect the efficacy of planning and implementation processes at the grassroots level. This is evident in the productive sector in general and agriculture in particular. It was in this backdrop the present study was conducted. The study was primarily intended to describe the process of institutionalization of decentralized planning in agriculture in Kerala. In this connection, transitions in the administrative framework and policy environment of decentralized planning were also explored. The determinants of the efficacy of decentralized planning in agriculture and the nature of their influence as experienced by major actors of the process were also identified. The study also explored the accomplishments in the agricultural sector since institutionalization of decentralized planning. Alongside, policy imperatives of the experiences of institutionalization were delineated. The sample consisted of 160 respondents comprising of agricultural officers, panchayat presidents and members of the agricultural working group of various development sectors. Respondents were drawn from 40 grama panchayaths selected from five districts representing the five major agroclimatic regions. The study has revealed that there are 15 distinct processes of decentralized planning in the productive sector at the LSGI level. They have evolved over a period of three five-year plans through various iterative processes and drawing lessons from diverse field experiences. The state government plan allocation to local selfgovernments showed decreasing trend from Ninth Five Year Plan onwards. While local self-government institutions (LSGIs) had been provided with 29.29 per cent of state plan fund allocation, it was reduced to 22.9 per cent and 24.2 per cent in the tenth and eleventh five-year plans respectively. Plan expenditure of LSGIs was found to range from 74.81 per cent to 105.25 per cent during this period. It could also be observed that the mandatory sectoral ceilings for productive sector enforced in various plans have succeeded in ensuring investment in various sub sectors of agriculture. Many institutional innovations were initiated to foster people’s participation in planning. Introduction of ward development committees and Ayalsabhas was a major step towards this direction. However, attempts towards additional resource pooling, collaboration with academic institutions to enhance quality of projects and attempts to avoid thin spread of resources were found to be ineffective. Formulating agricultural projects with the assistance of cooperative sector and integrating central and state schemes were also not effective. In spite of the guidelines for formulating joint projects and muti year projects, local bodies were not venturing to such projects, suggesting that a motivational measure to promote joint projects among local bodies be introduced. Moreover, selection of members to the working group and PPC have to be according to their capabilities adjudged based on a state wide criteria. Employing modern technologies for primary processing and value addition, better provision of services, networking of producers and efficient marketing were not adequately mainstreamed by LSGIs in their plans. The efficacy of processes involved in decentralised planning was perceived differently by different categories of actors. Out of the 15 processes, plan appraisal, integration and implementation were perceived to have low efficacy. Plan formulation and resource allocation were also found to have low efficacy. Integration of projects had the lowest efficacy perception score. However, approval of plans by the District Planning Committee, preparation of detailed projects by the working group, holding of Gramasabha, preparation of draft plan proposals and discussion in the development seminar were reported to have high efficacy. Analysis of the attributes of the actors which contributed to their perception on the efficacy of decentralized planning process revealed that four major factors viz. participation, group decision making, experience and knowledge mediation could explain 77.22 per cent variance. Majority of agricultural officers had medium level of perceived efficacy, significantly influenced by their participation-performance interdependence factor and decentralization- development facilitation factors. Role performance of Agricultural Officers in decentralised planning was found to be high. They had performed their roles actively in budgeting of project proposals, planning, monitoring and evaluation, in the order of involvement. Lowest performance level of Agricultural Officers was found to be in functions related to agricultural extension. Accomplishments of decentralized planning in agriculture were quantified in terms physical targets and financial achievements. Plan fund allocation in the productive sector was found to be the highest in the high range zone, followed by problem zone. Plan expenditure in the districts selected from high range zone, northern region and problem zone was higher than 80 per cent. Projects on various aspects of rice, vegetables and banana had received more funds than other sub sectors during the reference period. With regard to the allocations spent, assistance to labour cost for rice farmers was the major intervention while those for coconut development and promotion of intercropping were less than 10% and 3% of respectively. Compared to other crops, the attention paid by local bodies to development of tuber crops, spices and pulses was less. Cashew being a hardy crop for waste lands did not find any place in decentralized plans of north, central and high range zones. Several deficiencies were found in the process of decentralised planning. Most importantly, there should be focused efforts for enhancing the capacities of working groups and Planning Committees. Integration of development interventions by various agencies at the local level have to be ensured through better coordination. Collective deliberations on sectoral working group reports coordinated by panchayath planning committee will foster shared vision and convergence among functions of various officials transferred to the Grama panchayath. The panchayath level data base, Peoples’ Bio Diversity Register formulated through Bio Diversity Management Committees and the watershed master plan have to be updated through massive farmer participation to ensure data base support to local planning and foster the opportunities for local resource mobilization. Further, assistance for conservation and multiplication of local germplasm, traditional seed reserves by local farmer clusters, community seed banks and seed growers’ networks have to be initiated and the subsidy guidelines have to be broadened to include such initiatives. The perception of poor marketing infrastructure was the most ranked among various constraints analyzed. With regard to projects to bridge the skill gaps in farming and improved service delivery, the existing Agro Service Centres (ASC) at block level and Farmer Service Centres should be networked for technologybased services with supporting projects from decentralized plan allocations. A KVKATMA- LSGD linkage will resolve the issues of less propagation of technologies in projects and less expertise of working group members. To enhance participation of youth in gramasabha a drive on decentralization, gramasabha literacy and the need to participate for youth was suggested as part of school and college syllabus.ThesisItem Open Access Endophytic fungi for the management of spotted pod borer, Maruca vitrata Fab.(Lepidoptera:Crambidae) in cowpea.(Department of Agricultural Entomology, College of Agriculture ,Vellanikkara, 2022-12-09) Smitha Revi; Madhu SubramanianThe spotted pod borer, Maruca vitrata Fab. (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) is a major constraint in the production of legumes because of its wide host range, distribution and destructiveness. In cowpea, the loss due to pod borer infestation varies from 20 to 60 per cent, often reaching upto 80 per cent in severe cases. Application of pesticides can hardly be recommended in cowpea as the pods are harvested at alternate days. Biological control of M. vitrata using entomopathogenic microorganisms has received considerable attention in recent times. Previous studies have demonstrated the potential of entomopathogenic organisms to colonise an array of plants and confer protection from insect pests. In this context, a study entitled “Endophytic fungi for the management of spotted pod borer, Maruca vitrata Fab. (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) in cowpea” was undertaken with an objective of isolation and characterization of endophytic entomopathogenic fungi in cowpea, standardization of method of inoculation of entomopathogenic fungi in cowpea, and evaluation of selected endophytic fungi for management of the spotted pod borer, M. vitrata. Purposive sampling surveys were conducted in the major cowpea growing areas of Kozhikode, Thrissur, Kottayam and Thiruvananthapuram districts of Kerala. A total of 235 endophytic fungal isolates were obtained from the cowpea plant samples collected from 40 locations. This comprised of 103 isolates from roots, 63 from stems, 31 from leaves, 33 from pods and five from flowers. Nine accessions of cowpea with different levels of resistance were also screened for the isolation of fungal endophytes. All the accessions were found to harbor endophytic fungi and yielded 32 isolates. Among these accessions, Palakkadan thandan payar yielded the maximum number of seven endophytic fungi. Lola and Mysore local had the lowest number of isolates. In contrast to the results of survey, the leaves of cowpea plant harbored more endophytic fungi than other plant parts. A total of 267 isolates were obtained from survey samples and cowpea accessions. Three isolates were found to be pathogenic to M. vitrata. They were identified as Fusarium oxysporum (EEF 1) and two isolates of Purpureocillium lilacinum (EEF 4 and EEF 64) through morphological and molecular characterization. These isolates were evaluated along with Beauveria bassiana (NBAIR strain) for their bioefficacy against M. vitrata. The best two organisms in the bioefficacy studies, viz., B. bassiana (NBAIR strain) and P. lilacinum (EEF 4) were used for standardizing the inoculation technique for endophytic colonization in cowpea plant. Three different methods of inoculation viz., seed, soil and foliar inoculation were evaluated for identifying the best method for colonization of entomopathogenic fungi in cowpea plants. The effect of fungal colonization on infestation of spotted pod borer in cowpea was further assessed under field condition. Foliar inoculation with B. bassiana registered the lowest mean pod damage of 12.53 per cent. B. bassiana applied as foliar application resulted in the highest marketable pod yield of 152.83g plant-1 , followed by P. lilacinum as foliar application (149.33g plant-1 ). Based on the polyhouse and field studies, it was inferred that foliar application of B. bassiana was found to be the best treatment against the target pest, M. vitrata. In addition, the results of the current study suggested that that endophytic colonization in cowpea had little adverse impact on plant growth and yield. Foliar application of B. bassiana, which was identified as the most effective treatment against pod borer in the previous studies, was selected for comparative evaluation with the diamide insecticide, flubendiamide against M. vitrata. Cowpea plants treated with both flubendiamide and B. bassiana had significantly less number of infested pods than control, with 8.41 and 15.05 per cent infestation respectively. Control plants recorded the highest infestation of 21.28 per cent. Mean marketable pod yield showed significant difference between flubendiamide (166.14g plant-1 ) and foliar inoculation of B. bassiana (155.14g plant-1 ). Both these treatments also had significantly higher marketable pod yield compared to control plants (139.29g plant-1 ). In conclusion, the present study revealed that use of B. bassiana as an endophyte could be a useful tool in integrated pest management of pod borer in cowpea. However, further studies are needed to understand the mechanisms through which the endophyteThesisItem Open Access Breeding yard long bean(Vigna unguiculata subsp.sesquipedalis (L.) Verdcourt) for anthracnose resistance through conventional and molecular marker analysis(Department of Vegetable Science College of Agriculture ,Vellayani, 2022) Merin Elza George; Sarada,SThe study entitled ―Breeding yard long bean (Vigna unguiculata subsp. sesquipedalis (L.) Verdcourt) for anthracnose resistance through conventional and molecular marker analysis‖ was carried out at the Department of Vegetable Science, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, during 2019-2022. The objective of the study was to identify molecular marker(s) linked with anthracnose disease resistance in the F2 segregating population of yard long bean, using bulk segregant analysis to enable marker assisted selection along with conventional breeding. The study was undertaken in six experiments. In experiment I, 50 genotypes of vegetable cowpea collected from different parts of India, including the released varieties of SAUs and ICAR institutes were screened against the most virulent isolate of Colletotricum gloeosporioides through artificial inoculation. Among the 50 genotypes tested, VU 53, with semi-trailing growth habit was found to be highly resistant with disease severity of 3.67 ± 0.13 %. Three susceptible, high yielding long podded varieties viz., KAU Deepika, Vellayani Jyothika and Githika, selected as female parents were crossed with VU 53, the most resistant genotype as male parent for the development of three hybrids. In experiment II, two crossing blocks were laid to produce the seeds of three hybrids and their F2 progenies. The three hybrids were evaluated along with the parents under replicated trial in the main field for trailing nature, yield and quality in experiment III. Significant variation was noticed on mean performance of yard long bean parents and hybrids for most of the characters studied. Earliest flowering was observed in KAU Deepika x VU 53 (57.33 ± 0.57 days) and delayed flowering in Githika x VU 53 (71.66 ± 1.15 days). Among the hybrids, the highest pod length was recorded in KAU Deepika x VU 53 (24.50 ± 1.00 cm), while the Vellayani Jyothika x VU 53 had the maximum pod girth (2.90 ± 0.10 cm). Maximum pod weight and pods per plant was recorded in KAU Deepika x VU 53 (19.22 ± 0.58 g and 79.33 ± 0.59 respectively) among hybrids. The cross Vellayani Jyothika x VU 53 (16.55 ± 0.20 g) exhibited maximum seed weight. Among the three hybrids, KAU Deepika x VU 53 (1416.00 ± 126.09 g) recorded the highest yield per plant and was on par with Githika x VU 53 (1343.33 ± 75.06 g). Among the hybrids, KAU Deepika x VU 53 (67.85 ± 0.96 days) was significantly superior for days to harvest. The longest duration among hybrids was observed in KAU Deepika x VU 53 (126.56 ± 0.37 days) and the shortest duration was recorded in Vellayani Jyothika x VU 53 (121.31 ± 0.58 days). High heritability and genetic advance was recorded for vine length, days to first flowering, pod length, pod weight, pods per plant, yield per plant, yield per plot, hundred seed weight and keeping quality. Yield per plant had significant positive phenotypic and genotypic correlation with pod weight, followed by pods per plant, length of terminal leaf, seeds per pod, pod length, crop duration, keeping quality and days to harvest. Pods per plant could be considered as the most important yield trait for enhancing the yield in yard long bean because of its high, positive correlation and direct effect with yield per plant along with high heritability and genetic advance. In experiment IV, parents, three hybrids and F2 progenies were evaluated for resistance to natural incidence of C. gloeosporioides in the main field, as unreplicated trial and without any plant protection measures. All the three F1 were found to be field tolerant. Out of 175 F2 plants of the cross KAU Deepika x VU 53, 164 plants were susceptible and 11 were resistant. In the case of Vellayani Jyothika x VU 53, 175 plants were susceptible among the 187 individual F2 progenies observed. Similarly, in the cross Githika x VU 53, 188 plants were susceptible while 12 plants were found to be symptomless. The F2 progenies of the high yielding hybrid KAU Deepika x VU 53 were evaluated for resistance to C. gloeosporioides through artificial inoculation in experiment V. Out of 196 plants, 185 plants were found to be susceptible whereas 11 plants were resistant which could be utilized in marker assisted breeding programme. The segregation for anthracnose resistance in F2 plants was in the ratio 15:1 (185 susceptible plants out of 196), which suggests that the inheritance of anthracnose resistance may be controlled by two recessive genes. Bulked segregant analysis was done using the DNA from the resistant parent, susceptible parent, resistant F2 bulk and susceptible F2 bulk in experiment VI. Bulked segregant analysis with the SSR primer CLM0008 revealed a polymorphic band at ≈ 300 bp which was appeared in the resistant parent and bulk. Bulked segregant analysis with ISSR primer UBC 811 produced polymorphic bands at ≈ 1100 bp, which were present in resistant parent and resistant bulks. The identified markers linked with resistance were validated over the resistant F2 lines obtained.ThesisItem Open Access Integrated nutrient management in minisett cultivation of elephant foot yam {Amorphophallus paeoniifolius (Dennst.) Nicolson}(Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, 2022) Dhanalakshmi V N.; Rajasree GThe study entitled “Integrated nutrient management in minisett cultivation of elephant foot yam [Amorphophallus paeoniifolius (Dennst.) Nicolson]” was conducted at the Instructional Farm, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, Thiruvananthapuram to standardise the minisett size in elephant foot yam and to investigate the effect of integrated nutrient management practices on growth, yield, quality and economics of cultivation and to study the rooting and tuberisation pattern of minisett planted elephant foot yam. The investigation consisted of two experiments; standardisation of minisett corm size and integrated nutrient management practices (field experiment) and rooting and tuberisation pattern study (pot culture) and was undertaken during April to November 2018 and 2019. The first experiment was laid out in RBD with 15 treatment combinations and a control, replicated thrice. The treatments comprised three minisett corm sizes (s1-200 g, s2-300 g and s3-400 g) and five integrated nutrient management practices (i1-100 per cent NPK, i2-75 per cent NPK with 50 per cent N substitution through coir pith compost, i3-75 per cent NPK with 50 per cent N substitution through coir pith compost + PGPR mix-I + AMF, i4-50 per cent NPK with 50 per cent N substitution through coir pith compost, i5-50 per cent NPK with 50 per cent N substitution through coir pith compost + PGPR mix-I + AMF). The minisett corms and control corms (1 kg) of elephant foot yam var. Gajendra were planted at a spacing of 60 x 60 cm and 90 x 90 cm respectively. The recommended dose of N, P and K (100:50:150 kg NPK ha-1 ) for elephant foot yam was modified based on soil test data. Substitution of N with coir pith compost was carried out on N equivalent basis, and P and K were given through chemical sources. The pot culture experiment was laid out in CRD with 14 plants per treatment with the same treatments as the field experiment. The number of days taken for 100 per cent sprouting of seed corms varied between minisett corms and control corms and the latter sprouted early. The minisett corm s3 (400 g) recorded taller plants, higher leaf area index, pseudostem 281 girth and canopy spread. Application of 100 per cent NPK (i1) as chemical fertilizer produced taller plants and higher canopy spread during later stages compared to INM practices. Among the INM treatments, i3 (75 % NPK with 50 % N substitution through coir pith compost + PGPR mix-I + AMF) found superior with respect to growth attributes such as plant height and canopy spread. The treatment combination s3i1 (400 g + 100 % NPK as chemical fertilizer) produced taller plants and recorded higher canopy spread. Among the interactions including INM practices, taller plants were produced by s3i3 and s3i5 and higher canopy spread was recorded with s3i2, s3i3 and s3i5. Control plants (1 kg) showed taller plants, higher pseudostem girth and canopy spread at all stages of observation. The s3 recorded higher yield attributes, corm yield (48.81 and 50.57 t ha-1 during first year and second year, respectively) and pooled corm yield (49.69 t ha1 ). The treatments, i1 (100 % NPK) recorded significantly the highest yield attributes and yield. Among the different INM practices, i3 recorded higher yield attributes and corm yield (38.26 and 45.37 t ha-1 during first year and second year, respectively), while corm yield in pooled mean analysis (41.82 t ha-1 ) was also higher in this treatment. The s3i1 (400 g + 100 % NPK as chemical fertilizer) produced significantly the highest yield attributes and yield among all the treatments. Among the INM combinations, s3i3 recorded higher yield attributes, corm yield and higher pooled mean of corm yield (51.29 t ha-1 ). Control recorded higher yield attributes than minisetts. Pooled analysis of corm yield ha-1 indicated that s3i1, s3i2, s3i3 and s3i5 were superior to control and s2i1, s2i2, s2i3 and s3i4 were on par with control. Quality attributes like starch, total sugar, crude protein and crude fibre content of corm were non significant with respect to the treatments. Higher dry matter content was obtained in i4 (50 % NPK with 50 % N substitution through coir pith compost). The lower content of oxalic acid was recorded with i5 and i4 and the higher content was in i1 (100 % NPK). The minisett corm s3 recorded superior results for nutrient content, uptake and nutrient harvest indices. The INM treatment, i3 recorded higher nutrient content and uptake, however the highest was recorded in i1 among all the treatments. The treatment s3i1 (400 g + 100 % NPK 282 through chemical fertilisers) recorded significantly the highest K uptake. Among the combinations including INM practices, s3i3 recorded higher K uptake during second year. The combinations, s3i1, s3i2, s3i3, s3i4 and s3i5 were found superior to control in case of nutrient uptake. Soil chemical properties after the field experiments were not significantly affected by the treatments. The treatment s3i1 (400 g + 100 % NPK) recorded the highest net income and BCR during both the years. The highest net income and BCR were recorded from s3i2 during first year and s3i3 during second year, and the two year mean of net income and BCR were also highest in the case of INM treatment s3i3. In pot culture study, chemical properties of potting medium at monthly intervals up to harvest were not significantly affected by the treatments except for organic carbon content. The treatment i3 (75 % NPK with 50 % N substitution through coir pith compost + PGPR mix-I + AMF) recorded higher organic carbon content at 5 MAP. The minisett corm s3 excelled in rooting pattern and root anatomical parameters. Higher number of roots per plant was recorded in i2 and i3, however, these treatments were on par with i1 (100 % NPK). Higher weight of roots per plant was observed in i5, i4 and i3 and, root anatomical parameters were superior in i3. The interactions, s3i5, s3i4 and s3i3 recorded the highest weight of roots per plant. Higher root parameters were recorded in control than in minisetts and, in case of number of roots per plant s3i1, s3i2 and s3i3 at 4, 6 MAP and harvest, and s3i1 at 5 MAP recorded on par results with control. In the case of weight of roots per plant, s3i3 was on par with control at harvest. The roots of plants applied with AMF showed mycelial network from 3 MAP up to the harvest, and in the maximum growing stage of 5 MAP, vesicles were found in between the cells of the roots of AMF applied plants. Higher root colonization was observed in s3i3 at 5 MAP. Corm initiation was observed between 1 MAP and 2 MAP in control and between 2 MAP and 3 MAP in all other treatments. The s2 (300 g) during 3-4 MAP and s3 (400 g) during all other stages had significantly the highest corm bulking rate (CBR). Higher corm bulking efficiency (CBE) was recorded in s2 during 3-4 MAP, s1 during 4-5 MAP and 6 MAP-harvest and s3 during 5-6 MAP. 283 The INM treatment i3 showed superior results for CBR and CBE, however, higher CBR and CBE were recorded in i1 (100 % NPK) among all the treatments. The s3i1 (400 g + 100 % NPK)showed the highest CBR and CBE during 4-5 MAP and 5-6 MAP among all the treatments. Among the INM interactions, s3i3 during 3-4 MAP and 5-6 MAP; s3i2 during 4-5 MAP and s3i4 during 6 MAP-harvest recorded higher CBR. The s2i3 during 3-4 MAP, s1i3 during 4-5 MAP, s3i3 during 5-6 MAP and s1i5 during 6 MAP-harvest recorded higher CBE. Higher corm weight per plant was recorded with s3. The i1 recorded the higher corm weight per plant among all the treatments, and at 5 MAP, i1 was on par with i3. Among the INM treatments i2 at 3 MAP and i3 at all other stages recorded higher corm weight per plant. Among interactions, s3i3 produced higher corm weight, however, among all the treatments the highest corm weight was noted in s3i1 at all stages except at 4 MAP. Control produced significantly higher corm weight per plant than minisetts. Uptake of nitrogen at 3 MAP and uptake of phosphorus at harvest were higher in s3. The INM treatment i3 recorded higher microbial population and dehydrogenase activity in the potting medium and among the interactions, higher dehydrogenase activity was recorded with s3i3. Significant and positive correlations were observed between corm weight per plant vs. root anatomical parameters and nutrient uptake vs. root anatomical parameters. It is evident from the present study that planting of 400 g minisett corm resulted in better growth, yield and quality of elephant foot yam. Application of 75 per cent NPK with 50 per cent N substitution through coir pith compost + PGPR mix-I [@ 10 g per pit (dry cow dung: PGPR mix-I in 50:1 proportion) - at planting and 2 MAP] + AMF (@ 10 g per pit - at the time of planting) in elephant foot yam resulted in superior growth, yield and quality under INM system. Planting of 400 g minisett and application of 75 per cent NPK with 50 per cent N substitution through coir pith compost + PGPR mix-I + AMF under an INM system could be recommended for economic production of minisett elephant foot yam. Rooting and tuberisation of elephant foot yam were found superior in planting of 400 g minisett corm with application of 75 per cent NPK with 50 per cent N substitution through coir pith compost + PGPR mix-I + AMF.ThesisItem Open Access Soil test crop response studies in cluster bean (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba L.) in lateritic soils of Kerala(Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, College of Agriculture,Vellanikkara, 2022) Ayisha, V V; KAU; Rajalekshmi, KCluster bean, commonly known as guar, is a legume crop cultivated as a vegetable, green manure and forage crop. India is the leading producer of cluster bean in the world and accounts for around 80 per cent of global production. The generalised application of fertilizers by farmers result in under or over fertilization, lowering production and profitability while also polluting the environment. So the emphasis on soil test based balanced fertilizer recommendation has become more pertinent in the current scenario of high fertilizer costs and yield maximisation programmes. Hence, the investigation entitled “Soil test crop response studies in cluster bean (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba L.) in lateritic soils of Kerala” was undertaken. The study was conducted at College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara in lateritic soils (Ultisol) in the STCR field during 2020-2021 with the objective of developing soil test based fertilizer prescription equation for cluster bean using inorganic fertilizers alone and with the combined use of organic manures. A fertility gradient experiment was conducted to create soil fertility gradient in the field by applying graded doses of N, P and K fertilizers and raising fodder maize var. CO1. After the development of fertility gradient, the main STCR experiment was conducted in the same field with the test crop, cluster bean var. Pusa naubahar. The treatment structure consisted of four levels of nitrogen (0, 10, 20 and 40 kg ha-1 ), four levels of phosphorous (0, 30, 60 and 120 kg ha-1 ) and four levels of potassium (0, 40, 80 and 120 kg ha-1 ) along with three levels of FYM (0, 15 and 25 t ha-1 ). The basic parameters such as nutrient requirement (NR) and contributions of nutrients from soil (CS), fertilizer (CF) and FYM (COM) were computed from the field experimental data. The nutrient requirements (NR) for cluster bean were worked out as 0.68, 0.05 and 0.22 kg N, P2O5 and K2O to produce one quintal yield. The contributions from soil (CS) were estimated as 9.84, 2.29 and 1.99 per cent of N, P2O5 and K2O respectively. The contributions from fertilizer (CF) were calculated as 90.90, 3.29 and 10.82 per cent and that from FYM (COM) were 7.17, 1.92 and 2.96 per cent for N, P2O5 and K2O respectively. From the above basic data, fertilizer prescription equation for specific yield targets of cluster bean in the lateritic soils were derived as follows, NPK alone: FN = 0.74*T - 0.11*SN FP2O5 = 1.47*T – 1.59*SP FK2O = 2.05*T- 0.22*SK NPK + FYM (IPNS) FN = 0.74*T - 0.11*SN – 0.08*ON FP2O5 = 1.47*T – 1.59*SP – 1.34*OP FK2O = 2.05*T - 0.22*SK – 0.33*OK Where, FN, FP2O5 and FK2O = Fertilizer N, P2O5 and K2O in kg ha-1 T = Yield target in q ha-1 SN, SP and SK = STV for available N, P and K in kg ha-1 . ON, OP and OK = Amount of N, P and K supplied through FYM in kg ha-1 . The multiple regression model calibrated with yield as dependent variable and soil test results and inorganic fertilizer doses as independent variables had 62.5 per cent predictability. The yield of cluster bean increased with the application of NPK alone and IPNS viz. NPK plus FYM treatment and the magnitude of increase was higher under IPNS over NPK alone. The study is useful to adjust fertilizer doses based on yield target and available resources of organic manure with the farmers. The equations developed for cluster bean should be tested in places with similar agro climate and soil situations for validation.ThesisItem Open Access Gene action and gene expression analysis in yardlong bean(Vigna unguiculata ssp. sesquipedalis(L.) Verdcourt) for drought tolerance(Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2022) Rahana, S N; KAU; Beena ThomasYard long bean (Vigna unguiculata ssp. sesquipedalis (L.) Verdcourt) is a highly remunerative legume vegetable of Kerala. Due to climate change and erratic rainfall, in summer season the crop growth and pod production is heavily affected by moisture stress. Development of high yielding varieties of yard long bean with drought tolerance is essential for its sustainable production. In this context, the present study entitled "Gene action and gene expression analysis in yard long bean (Vigna unguiculata ssp. sesquipedalis (L.) Verdcourt) for drought tolerance" was carried out in the Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, with an objective to identify drought tolerant genotype from the available germplasm and to understand the nature and magnitude of gene action and gene expression involved in the inheritance of drought tolerance in yard long bean. The study comprised four experiments. First experiment dealt with the seedling stage evaluation of 100-yard-long bean genotypes for drought tolerance in field. The moisture stress was imposed by withholding irrigation and later irrigation was restored in order to ensure the survival of the tolerant lines. The results of the analysis showed significant variations among genotypes. Out of the 100 genotypes screened, 15 drought tolerant genotypes were identified based on their better performance in terms of high RLW, low PWP, more number of days for reaching critical stress level and high recovery percentage. The genotypes identified were G1 (Acc 5), G5 (Acc 1339), G6 (Adoor local), G14 (Anchal local II) G15 (Aranmula local), G24 (Elamadu local), G36 (Kattampally local), G42 (Kollam local), G45 (Kottarakara local), G46 (Kottayam local), G50 (Kulashegarapuram local), 051 (Kulathupuzha local), G60 (Muttathukonam local), G74 (Nilamcl local) and G89 (Pongamoodu local). The fifteen selected genotypes from the first experiment were evaluated for drought tolerance in the second experiment by imposing moisture stress at the reproductive stage. Based on the biometric and physiological evaluations, the top seven genotypes with high yield and drought tolerance A4 (Anchal local II), A5 (Aranmula local), A7 (Kattampally local). All (Kulashegarapuram local), A13 (Muttathukonam local), A14 (Nilamel local), and A15 (Pongamoodu local) were selected as parents for further hybridization in experiment in. In the third experiment, LxT crosses were performed by using seven selected tolerant genotypes as lines with three popular yard long bean varieties as testers to generate twenty one hybrids. The genetic analysis of hybrids and parents were evaluated based on eight morphological and eight physiological parameters. Mean performance, combming ability, gene action and heterosis were estimated. Based on the mean performance and gca effects, L4 (Kulashegarapuram local) and L3 (Kattampally local) are identified as outstanding general combiners and can be exploited as parents for drought tolerance breeding in yard long bean. Three superior crosses, Kattampally local x Vellayani Jyothika (L3 x T3), Nilamel local X Lola (L6 X T2) and Kulashegarapuram local x Lola (L4 x T2) were identified as promising combinations for drought tolerance and yield xmder water stress. In the final experiment quantitative real time PCR was conducted to analyze the gene expression of drought responsive genes in tolerant hybrids and parents. The elevated expression of DREBs and NCEDl genes in tolerant hybrids and genotypes in gene expression analysis reflects the increased drought tolerance ability of those genotypes. The gene expression analysis was in conformity with the field studies. All the hybrids mamfested significant amount of dominance variance for commercial exploitation. Existence of significant amoimt of dominance variance and non-additive gene action suggests that hybridization as the best strategy for improving the drought tolerance character in yard long bean. The identified genotypes can be used for isolation of purelines with enhanced drought tolerance and the transgressive segregants from the identified crosses can be used for the development of drought tolerant high yielding cultivars in the fixture. The work can be continued with the identified genotypes and crosses for the development of climate smart drought tolerant varieties of yard long bean.
