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Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur
The history of agricultural education in Kerala can be traced back to the year 1896 when a scheme was evolved in the erstwhile Travancore State to train a few young men in scientific agriculture at the Demonstration Farm, Karamana, Thiruvananthapuram, presently, the Cropping Systems Research Centre under Kerala Agricultural University. Agriculture was introduced as an optional subject in the middle school classes in the State in 1922 when an Agricultural Middle School was started at Aluva, Ernakulam District. The popularity and usefulness of this school led to the starting of similar institutions at Kottarakkara and Konni in 1928 and 1931 respectively.
Agriculture was later introduced as an optional subject for Intermediate Course in 1953. In 1955, the erstwhile Government of Travancore-Cochin started the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, Thiruvananthapuram and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences at Mannuthy, Thrissur for imparting higher education in agricultural and veterinary sciences, respectively. These institutions were brought under the direct administrative control of the Department of Agriculture and the Department of Animal Husbandry, respectively. With the formation of Kerala State in 1956, these two colleges were affiliated to the University of Kerala. The post-graduate programmes leading to M.Sc. (Ag), M.V.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees were started in 1961, 1962 and 1965 respectively.
On the recommendation of the Second National Education Commission (1964-66) headed by Dr. D.S. Kothari, the then Chairman of the University Grants Commission, one Agricultural University in each State was established. The State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) were established in India as an integral part of the National Agricultural Research System to give the much needed impetus to Agriculture Education and Research in the Country. As a result the Kerala Agricultural University (KAU) was established on 24th February 1971 by virtue of the Act 33 of 1971 and started functioning on 1st February 1972. The Kerala Agricultural University is the 15th in the series of the SAUs.
In accordance with the provisions of KAU Act of 1971, the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, were brought under the Kerala Agricultural University. In addition, twenty one agricultural and animal husbandry research stations were also transferred to the KAU for taking up research and extension programmes on various crops, animals, birds, etc.
During 2011, Kerala Agricultural University was trifurcated into Kerala Veterinary and Animal Sciences University (KVASU), Kerala University of Fisheries and Ocean Studies (KUFOS) and Kerala Agricultural University (KAU).
Now the University has seven colleges (four Agriculture, one Agricultural Engineering, one Forestry, one Co-operation Banking & Management), six RARSs, seven KVKs, 15 Research Stations and 16 Research and Extension Units under the faculties of Agriculture, Agricultural Engineering and Forestry. In addition, one Academy on Climate Change Adaptation and one Institute of Agricultural Technology offering M.Sc. (Integrated) Climate Change Adaptation and Diploma in Agricultural Sciences respectively are also functioning in Kerala Agricultural University.
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ThesisItem Open Access Nutrients and tillage interactions in rice fallow cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp.) production(Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, 2020) Vandana, G Pai; KAU; Prameela, PAn experiment entitled “Nutrients and tillage interactions in rice fallow cowpea production” was conducted during 2017-2019 at College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara of Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur. The study consisted of two experiments. Experiment-1 was a pot culture study undertaken during 2017, to find out optimum dose of potassium and magnesium sulphate for cowpea. The experiment was laid out in CRD with 14 treatments and three replications. The treatments included three levels of K2O (10, 20 and 40 kg/ha), and four levels of MgSO4 (40, 60, 80 and 100 kg/ha). Apart from K: MgSO4 @ 10:80 kg/ha (KAU package of practices) and soil test based nutrition (K: MgSO4 @12:80 kg/ha) were also included. Nitrogen and P2O5 were applied at the rate of 20 and 30 kg/ha, respectively, uniformly to all pots. A bush type variety of cowpea Anaswara released from Kerala Agricultural University was used in the study. In the pot culture experiment, application of K2O: MgSO4 @ 40: 40 kg/ha and 40:100 kg/ha resulted in taller plants. At 60 DAS, POP based nutrient application registered more number of branches (12.7 /plant), which was on par with K2O: MgSO4 @ 10:60 (T2), 20:40 (T5), 20:100 (T8), 40:40 (T9), 40:80 (T11), 40:100 (T12) kg/ha as well as to soil test based nutrition (T14). Highest number of root nodules (201) and higher dry matter production at harvest (44 g/plant) was observed in application of K: MgSO4 @ 40:100 kg/ha (T12). An increase in dry matter production of cowpea was observed with magnesium sulphate nutrition. Various levels of K and Mg resulted in significant variation in chlorophyll a and total chlorophyll content. Application of potassium and MgSO4 @ 40:60 kg/ha resulted in higher number of pods and grain yield (40.3 g/plant) and it was statistically comparable to T11 and T12 (K2O: MgSO4 @ 40:80 & 40:100 kg/ha). Based on grain yield, treatments K: MgSO4 @ 20:60 kg/ha, 20:80 kg/ha, 40:60 kg/ha, 40:80 kg/ha were selected for field trial along with soil test based nutrition as control. The second experiment aimed at assessing the effect of various tillage practices, and varied doses of potassium and MgSO4 on growth and yield of cowpea and to work out economic viability. Field experiments were undertaken in rice fallow during 2017 and 2018 (November/December - March/April). Soil of the filed was high in organic carbon, available N, but deficient in available P, K, and Mg. The experiment was laid out in RBD and the treatments were factorial combinations of three types of tillage and varied doses of potassium and magnesium sulphate and it was replicated thrice. Zero tillage (ZT- M1), minimum tillage (MT- M2) and conventional tillage (CT- M3) were the major factors and five nutrient doses (S1-S5) were soil test based nutrition (S1- 11-13 kg K2O/ha along with 80 kg MgSO4/ha), 20 kg K2O/ha along with 60 kg/ 80 kg MgSO4/ha (S2 & S3) and 40 kg K2O/ha along with 60 kg/ 80 kg MgSO4/ha (S4 & S5). N and P2O5 were applied at the rate of 20 kg/ha and 30 kg/ha in all plots. Seeds were dibbled at spacing of 30 cm x 15 cm. In zero tillage, herbicide glyphosate was sprayed @ 0.85 kg/ha two weeks before sowing. In minimum tillage, strip tillage using spade was adopted at a spacing of 30 cm. In conventional tillage, land was ploughed twice followed by formation of small ridges and furrows at a spacing of 30 cm. The plot size was 6 m x 4.2 m. Germination percentage of cowpea (at 7 DAS) was significantly higher in conventional tillage (79 %), whereas, it was very low in zero till (44 %) and intermediate in MT (58 %). Tillage systems and potassium, magnesium sulphate doses had no significant effect on plant height of cowpea, and at 60 DAS average height was 47.5 cm, 52.9 cm and 48.4 cm under zero tillage, minimum tillage and conventional tillage, respectively. At 45 DAS and 60 DAS minimum tillage resulted in higher number of branches per plant whereas, plants in conventional tillage showed earliness in 50 % flowering. Significantly higher LAI was recorded in zero tillage, followed by minimum and conventional tillage. Application of K: MgSO4 @ 40:80 kg/ha also resulted in higher LAI. Zero tillage along with K: MgSO4 @ 40:80 kg/ha (M1S5) recorded the highest LAI. Tillage had no significant effect on chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and total chlorophyll content and on chlorophyll a/b ratio. Whereas, potassium and magnesium sulphate application had significant effect on chlorophyll content. Application of K: MgSO4 @ 20:60 kg/ha and K: MgSO4 @ 40:80 kg/ha resulted in higher as well as comparable chlorophyll a and total chlorophyll content. Among interactions ZT with K: MgSO4 @ 12:80 kg/ha (soil test) and CT along with K: MgSO4 @ 20:60 kg/ha higher chlorophyll a content. Dry matter production at early growth stage was higher under conventional tillage, followed by minimum tillage and zero tillage. Whereas, at 75 DAS, highest dry matter was registered under minimum tillage (3240 kg/ha). However, at 90 DAS, both minimum and conventional tillage resulted in higher as well as comparable dry matter (2043 kg/ha and 2085 kg/ha). Root length and root spread were higher under zero tillage followed by MT and CT. Application of K: MgSO4 @ 40:60 kg/ha also resulted in higher root spread. Zero tillage with K: MgSO4 @ 40:60 kg/ha (45.2 cm) resulted in longest roots and higher root spread (2695 cm2). Conventional tillage along with supply of K and MgSO4@ 40 and 80 kg /ha registered shortest roots and lower root spread. Pooled analysis showed that, among various tillage systems, significantly higher grain yield was realized under minimum tillage (735 kg/ha). This was followed by conventional tillage (648 kg/ha) and zero tillage (618 kg/ha) which were on par. Among varied potassium and magnesium doses, application of K: MgSO4 @ 40:60 kg/ha was found to be the best (grain yield of 806 kg/ha). Hence combination of minimum tillage along with K: MgSO4 @ 40:60 kg/ha resulted in the highest grain yield (915 kg/ha). Uptake of nutrients at 30 DAS followed the order of CT>MT>ZT. At harvest, higher uptake of potassium, and magnesium was noted in K: MgSO4 @ 40:60 kg/ha under minimum tillage. There was no significant variation with respect to grain protein content of cowpea due to various tillage practices whereas higher content was registered with application of K: MgSO4 @ 40:80 kg/ha (26.2 %).ThesisItem Open Access Analysis of soil and water conservation investments in Kerala and farm level financial gains(Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, 2020) Lokesh, S; KAU; Indira Devi, PClimate change is expected to increase stress on water resources which impacts the agricultural production and farmers’ livelihoods. Tropical high range regions like Wayanad are more vulnerable to climate change because of the faster rate of temperature increase and irregular rainfall pattern. Soil and Water Conservation (SWC) measures assumes significance in such situations in which the gradient, land use and rainfall factors trigger top soil loss. The SWC measures in Wayanad is promoted through four major schemes which are heavily subsidised by the State and Central Governments. This study was taken up with the specific objectives viz., to analyse the institutional credit flow towards soil and water conservation investments in Kerala, to assess the household level investment on soil and water conservation, understand the local preferences for soil/water conservation methods, assess the farm level economic viability and finally efficiency of such investments and understand the farmers’ perceptions on effectiveness of conservation measures. The study was based on both primary data and secondary data. Secondary data on institutional credit support, refinance and rainfall pattern was compiled from various issues of Economic Review, Government of Kerala; Annual Reports and potential linked credit plan documents of NABARD. The samples for the primary data were identified based on the multistage random sampling method. The major interventions in SWC are implemented through four schemes viz. Arable Land Treatment (ALT), Drainage Line Treatment (DLT), Drought Mitigation Scheme (DMS) and Western Ghats Development Scheme (WGDP). Total sample of 360 farmers (30 beneficiaries x 4 schemes x 3 taluks) were identified from the list of beneficiaries collected from the Department of Soil and Water Conservation. One neighboring farmer each to the sample farm was also interviewed. The data was collected through personal interview method employing a structured and pretested interview schedule. The analysis was done using appropriate statistical tools. The major findings of the study are as follows: Institutional credit support to agriculture in Kerala was ₹ 67,089 crore during 2017-18, wherein crop loans constituted major share (72%). The Commercial banks were leading with 65 per cent share. NABARD refinance support to agriculture amounted to ₹ 10024.29 crores. There has been an increasing preference for Non-Farm Sector, which enjoyed two third of total refinance support. Among the major institutions, RRB’s enjoyed the highest share of 33 per cent. In the farm sector, plantation and horticulture sector (31.26%) remained the prime sector in refinance support during the period 1990-91 to 2017-18. The institutional credit support to Wayanad agriculture was ₹ 2469.89 crores (2017-18) which registered a Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 18.97 per cent (2007-08 to 2017-18). Though crop loans constituted for 86 per cent of the total credit, the CAGR of term loans was faster (22.77%). Commercial banks were the main provider of credit and plantation and horticulture sector and dairy development sectors were given priority in lending. Considered as the hot spot of climate change in Kerala, the district was regularly facing drought situation and water scarcity was reported as one of the major problems. The irrigated agriculture in the district (44.72% of the respondents) was mainly depending on open wells and facing challenges as the water was enough to irrigate only during 2-3 months. Most of the respondents were middle aged, literate and marginal farmers. The SWC, on an average attracted an investment of ₹ 2,49,217 per household. Overall, nearly 50 per cent (177) of the respondents have adopted SWC structures on individual basis and have paid a share of 10 per cent at the rate of ₹ 24,922/household. About 40 per cent of the respondents adopted on group basis paying a share of five per cent. However, none of the respondents bothered to undertake the annual maintenance of the SWC structures. Impact of SWC measures on cropping pattern, productivity, production and farm income were assessed by comparing it with the situation before the investment. The SWC measures have facilitated the area expansion of ginger (56.94%), banana (38.53%), rubber (32.71%) and turmeric (31.65%). The significance of SWC measures was evident through the positive effect on productivity in all the crops. The significant area expansion and productivity gains in ginger, banana, rubber and turmeric has translated into substantial production gains (95.24% in ginger, 81.80% in banana, 64.77% in rubber, 49.60% in turmeric). The farm income increased to the tune of 45.61 per cent, the major increase being from ginger (95.24%), banana (81.80%), rubber (64.77%) and turmeric (49.60%) cultivation. All the major crops (coffee, pepper, arecanut and banana) performed well with positive indicators of financial viability and efficiency. The relative economic performance with respect to net returns was in the order of arecanut (₹ 4,24,074/ha), banana (₹ 3,42,202), coffee (₹ 2,73,365/ha) and black pepper (₹ 1,86,929/ha). The efficiency of investment as indicated by the BC ratio was in favour of arecanut (5.55) followed by coffee (3.96), banana (3.53) and black pepper (3.26). SWC is expected to improve the water availability and irrigation. Resource use efficiency analysis was done to assess whether it has contributed significantly to the returns. The results confirmed that irrigation has significantly contributed to the returns in arecanut, coffee and pepper. The economic viability of SWC investments was estimated to assess the economic worthiness of the investment as it involves substantial part of public money. The NPW of the investment was positive in all the schemes and averaged at ₹ 3,02,792/farm. DLT scheme was proven to be the best in terms of NPW. The efficiency in investment as measured by the BC ratio was highest in ALT (9.37) which averaged at 2.33, thus confirming the economic efficiency of the investment. IRR averaged at 28 per cent, which is significantly higher than the opportunity cost of capital (interest on fixed investments). The analysis justifies the social investment of SWC, as it leads to higher production and returns which supports the agricultural profession and welfare of the farmers. The impact of SWC measures on farm enterprise diversification, tree diversity, employment generation and ground water level were also found to be positive and helped in improving farm income. The positive externalities of SWC measures were acknowledged by the neighbouring farmers and they were reported to be motivated to adopt the same. However, the adoption of water saving technologies were found to be rather low. The decision to adopt SWC in any farm is decided by demographic, social, economic and institutional factors. Age, education levels, family size and number of literate persons in the family and knowledge on soil erosion influenced the decision to adopt the SWC, in all the cases irrespective of the scheme. Organizational membership also influenced the decisions making except in the case of WGDP scheme. The institutional credit delivery and refinance support in Kerala need to give more focus towards capital formation investments through LT credit support. The analysis justifies the public allocation and investment in SWC measures in farm holdings. The quantified positive impacts and externalities of SWC schemes can be used in educational and awareness creation programmes for wider implementation of the schemesThesisItem Open Access Production dynamics of strawberry (Fragaria x ananassa Duch.) in Kerala(Department of Fruit Science, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, 2020) Anu Kurian; KAU; Ajith Kumar, KStrawberry is a unique soft fruit crop known for its tantalizing aroma, bright red colour, juicy texture, sweetness and high nutritive value. This is a highly remunerative crop and give quickest returns with in a short period of six months. Temperature and photoperiod are the most important environmental factors that affect the transition from vegetative to flowering phase of strawberry. Previous studies conducted in the department have proved that strawberry can be grown in the plains as well as in hills of Kerala during September to March even in the open condition. The suitable genotypes and good management practices are of paramount importance for successful cultivation of strawberry. With this brief background, the present investigation titled “Production dynamics of strawberry (Fragaria x ananassa Duch.) in Kerala” was undertaken to identify suitable cultivars, better nutrient management, better spacing, suitable growing systems and media for the homestead cultivation of Kerala. Total of four experiments were designed for the study. The study was conducted using eight strawberry varieties under two different agroclimatic zones of Kerala. In Central mid-lands, cv. Winter Dawn recorded signficantly higher number of leaves and number of crowns per plant, whereas in High ranges, cv. Winter Dawn was found significantly superior for maximum plant height, number of leaves and number of crowns per plant. The attributes viz., number of clusters, flowers and fruits per plant were recorded in cv. Winter Dawn which was followed by cv. Sabrina-1 in both locations. Maximum harvesting period was recorded in cv. Winter Dawn in Central mid-lands while it was maximum in cv. Sabrina-1 in High ranges. Quality attributes such as TSS/acidity ratio was recorded maximum in cv. Sweet Charlie under both locations. Winter Dawn recorded maximum ascorbic acid content in both locations while cv. Crystal recorded maximum anthocyanin content. Maximum β-Carotene content was recorded in cv. Sabrina-1 in Central mid-lands while it was maximum in cv. Hadar in High ranges. Evaluating all the parameters during crop period, both Sabrina-1 and Winter Dawn showed stability in their sensory qualities in Central mid-lands. In High ranges, it was recorded in cv. Sweet Charlie. Nine different nutrient combinations were studied using cv. Winter Dawn in Central mid-lands of Kerala. Among the different nutrient combinations, FYM (30 t ha-1), N, P2O5, K2O @ 75:20:100 kg ha-1 (T8) recorded maximum vegetative attributes, number of flowers, fruits and yield per plant (79.92 g) and quality parameters such as TSS and TSS/acidity ratio. Maximum content of total sugars, ascorbic acid and highest sensory score were recorded in the nutrient combination FYM (30 t ha-1), N, P2O5, K2O @ 100:40:50 kg ha-1 (T9). Physiological attributes such as leaf area index was found to maximum in the nutrient combination FYM (t ha-1), N, P2O5, K2O kg ha-1@ 30:100:40:50 (T9), while the relative growth rate was recorded maximum in FYM (30 t ha-1), N, P2O5, K2O @ 75:20:100 kg ha-1 (T8) and 20 t ha-1, 50:40:100 kg ha-1 (T4). Among the nutrients, uptake was maximum in nitrogen and it ranges from 10.66 to 58.65 kg ha-1. The nutrient potassium which favours fruit formation was found maximum in the nutrient combination FYM (30 t ha-1), N, P2O5, K2O @ 75:20:100 kg ha-1 (T8) which ultimately resulted in maximum yield per plant. Different nutrient combinations had significant difference on nutrient content of strawberry fruits except copper content. The highest B/C ratio (0.91) was recorded for the nutrient combination, FYM (30 t ha-1), N, P2O5, K2O @ 75:20:100 kg ha-1 (T8). Six different spacing trials were studied using strawberry cv. Winter Dawn in both Central mid-lands and High ranges. Vegetative attributes viz., plant height, number of leaves and number of crowns were maximum in closer spacing of 20 cm x 20 cm in both Central mid-lands and High ranges which have led to the maximum production of flowers, clusters, fruits and yield per plant (100.03 g; 271.69 g) in both locations. Quality attributes viz., TSS, TSS/acidity ratio and total sugars were found maximum in wider spacing of 30 cm x 50 cm (T2) in Central mid-lands. In High ranges, maximum total sugars was recorded at a spacing of 30 cm x 60 cm (5.37 %) while maximum ascorbic acid and β-Carotene content were recorded at a spacing of 30 cm x 50 cm (T2). The total sensory score was found maximum in 30 cm x 50 cm (T2) in Central mid-lands while it was maximum in 30 cm x 60 cm (T1) in High ranges. Closer spacing of 20 cm x 20 cm did not have significant influence the quality attributes however it recorded highest B/C ratio in both Central mid-lands (1.21) and High ranges (3.28). Six different growing systems viz., hanging pots, hanging pipes, hanging bottles, vertical garden, grow bags and raised beds and four different growing media viz., Soil: Cocopeat: FYM, Soil: Cocopeat: Vermicompost, Cocopeat: Perlite: FYM and Cocopeat: Perlite: Vermicompost in 1:1:1 ratio were studied using cv. Winter Dawn in Central mid-lands. Vegetative attributes viz., plant height, number of leaves, plant spread and number of crowns were recorded maximum in growbags and raised beds with growing medium, Soil: Cocopeat: Vermicompost (1:1:1) which led to the maximum production of number of flowers, clusters, fruits and yield per plant (86.26 g). Quality attributes viz., TSS, TSS/acidity ratio and total sugars were recorded maximum in raised beds with growing medium Cocopeat: Perlite: Vermicompost (1:1:1). The overall sensory score was found maximum in fruits grown in raised beds with medium Soil: Cocopeat: FYM (1:1:1). The highest B/C ratio (1.36) was recorded with raised beds with Soil: Cocopeat: Vermicompost (1:1:1) as growing medium. On evaluation, it is found that cv. Winter Dawn showed significantly superior performance in vegetative, flowering, fruit and yield attributes with resistance to serious pests and diseases. Hence, it can be recommended as a best variety for strawberry cultivation in Kerala. Among the different nutrient combinations, FYM (30 t ha-1), N, P2O5, K2O @ 75:20:100 kg ha-1 (T8) was found suitable for better nutrient recommendation for strawberry. Though closer spacing of 20 cm x 20 cm recorded maximum yield but wider spacing would enhance the quality of fruits. Grow bag is found the best suitable growing system with growing medium Soil: Cocopeat: Vermicompost at 1:1:1 ratio, for home gardening of strawberry.ThesisItem Open Access Biotic agents for the management of American serpentine leaf miner, Liriomyza trifolii(Burgess) (Diptera:Agromyzidae)(Department of agricultural entomology, College of horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2014) Jyothi Sara, Jacob; KAU; Maicykutty P, MathewA study on “Biotic agents for the management of American serpentine leaf miner, Liriomyza trifolii (Burgess) (Diptera: Agromyzidae)” was carried out at the Department of Agricultural Entomology, College of Horticulture, K.A.U., Vellanikkara during 2011-2013 with the objectives of collection and identification of indigenous natural enemies and to assess the pathogenicity of the entomopathogens to explore the feasibility of utilizing them for its management. Surveys were conducted in the vegetable fields for the collection and identification of natural enemies associated with L. trifolii in three districts, namely, Thrissur, Ernakulam and Kottayam from January to March, 2011. The surveys revealed the occurrence of nine species of hymenopteran parasitoids. The per cent parasitism varied from 10.96 to 58.99 per cent among the crops surveyed. Three species of eulophids, namely, Cirrospilus acadius Narendran, C. brevicorpus Shafee & Rizvi and Aprostocetus sp. as well as the braconid, Toxares sp. are new reports for India. Among the parasitoids, Closterocerus spp. were the dominant group followed by Chrysonotomyia sp. All parasitoids were solitary, larval endoparasitoids except Toxares sp. which was larval-pupal in nature. One species each of small ants (Formicidae) and a dipteran fly (Dolichopodidae) were observed as predators on L. trifolii. In the study, no entomopathogens were observed from L. trifolii. Considering the level of pesticide consumption in vegetable crops that undermine the potential of insect parasitoids and also that no entomopathogens could be observed during the survey, it was decided to evaluate entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) as biocontrol agents against L. trifolii. Isolation of EPNs from 72 soil samples from Thrissur, Ernakulam and Kottayam districts yielded four isolates of Steinernema carpocapsae. Bioefficacy studies carried out on these four isolates along with Steinernema bicornutum and Heterorhabditis indica showed that S. carpocapsae Isolate - 1 had the lowest LC 50 , LC 90 and LT values indicating their higher effectiveness against the maggots of the pest. 50 Pot culture study conducted to compare the potential of S. carpocapsae Isolate - 1 with other treatments showed that azadirachtin 1 EC at 0.005% was the most effective causing 84.51 per cent mortality to the maggots of L. trifolii. This was followed by the foliar application of H. indica at 32 infective juveniles (IJs)/ maggot which caused 18.98 per cent mortality. Application of Beauveria bassiana at 1×10 7 spores/ ml was not effective. In the field evaluation, fipronil 5 SC at 0.002% was found to be the most effective treatment for controlling L. trifolii followed by azadirachtin 1 EC at 0.005%. Compatibility of the IJs of the S. carpocapsae Isolate - 1, S. bicornutum and H. indica was studied with ten commonly used insecticides in the laboratory by direct exposure method. Chlorantraniliprole 18.5 SC at 0.005% was found to be the most compatible insecticide with S. carpocapsae isolate - 1 causing only 0.17 per cent mortality to IJs at 72 hours after treatment (HAT). Quinalphos 25 EC at 0.05% and chlorpyriphos20 EC at 0.05% were highly incompatible, causing 96.17 and 92.87 per cent mortality of the nematodes. Dimethoate 30 EC at 0.04% was the most compatible insecticide with S. bicornutum and caused only 0.60 per cent mortality at 72 HAT and was followed by azadirachtin 1 EC at 0.005% with 0.78 per cent mortality to the IJs. Quinalphos 25 EC at 0.05% caused 99.93 per cent mortality at 72 HAT. Heterorhabditis indica was compatible with all insecticides except quinalphos 25 EC at 0.05% which was moderately toxic resulting in 39.6 per cent mortality. The virulence, pathogenicity and multiplication of the survived IJs were not affected by the insecticide treatments. Parasitoids and EPNs were observed as potential candidates for the management of L. trifolii. Hence future studies on the bio-ecology and mass production of dominant parasitoids and standardization of methods to improve the efficacy of EPNs are suggested for the successful control of L. trifolii in polyhouses as well as in the field.ThesisItem Open Access Bioactivity of carotenoids from shrimp shell waste(Department of Processing Technology,College of Fisheries,Panangad, 2010) Sindhu, S; KAU; Sherief, P MShrimp processing waste is the single largest industrial waste in the country causing diverse environmental problems. A study was carried out to assess the extractability of astaxanthin from shrimp waste in different organic solvents and vegetable oils. Extraction was tried using wet and dried waste, with and without deproteinisation. Waste was subjected to deproteinisation using alkali and enzyme (pancreatin). The different solvent systems tried were ether:acetone:water (15:75:10 v/v/v), acetone, hexane:isopropanol (3:2 v/v) and 90% acetone v/v. Astaxanthin in the extract was quantified by measuring the OD at 470 nm in hexane. Extraction was also done using vegetable oils viz. coconut oil, soybean oil and sunflower oil. Quantification of astaxanthin in pigmented oil was done by measuring the absorbance at 485 nm using 2155 as extinction coefficient. Astaxanthin yields from deproteinised samples were significantly lower than those from non deproteinised samples. The highest astaxanthin yield of 87.14 ± 4.55μg/g was obtained with non deproteinised wet waste extracted using acetone. The astaxanthin yield was significantly lower when oil was used as the extraction medium. Of the three oils coconut oil gave the highest yield. The results showed that acetone is the best solvent for extracting astaxanthin from shrimp shell waste in wet condition. The astaxanthin content in Aristeus alcocki shell waste is double that of Pandalus borealis shell waste, which is currently used as the commercial source of astaxanthin. The deep sea species Aristeus alcocki can thus be considered as a better source of astaxanthin for commercial exploitation than Pandalus borealis. TLC analysis of the shell waste extract showed that it contains free astaxanthin, astaxanthin monoester and astaxanthin diester in the ratio 1:1:2. GLC identification of the fatty acids esterified with astaxanthin revealed that saturated fatty acids, MUFA and PUFA are in the ratio 5:3:2 in monoester, whereas in diester they are in the ratio 4:3:3. The main fatty acids in monoester and diesters are palmitic acid, oleic acid, stearic acid and PUFAs: DHA and EPA. The in vitro antioxidant activity of the astaxanthin extract showed significant hydroxyl radical scavenging activity, superoxide anion scavenging activity and inhibition of lipid peroxidation. The IC50 values obtained were 56.43 ± 1.06 ng/ml, 27.91 ± 0.54 ng/ml and 26.54 ± 0.42 ng/ml, respectively. The antioxidant activity of astaxanthin from Aristeus alcocki was obtained at nanogram levels. This powerful antioxidant function may be due to the unique molecular structure of astaxanthin and synergistic effect of astaxanthin and PUFAs present in the astaxanthin monoester and diester fractions. The astaxanthin extract from shrimp shell waste significantly reduced carageenan induced paw edema in mice, percentage inhibition being 47.83 and 67.11 percent at astaxanthin concentrations of 0.5 mg/kg body weight and 1.0 mg/kg body weight, respectively. The inhibition of inflammation at 1.0mg/kg body weight was greater than that produced by the standard reference drug diclofenac. Cardioprotective effect of astaxanthin was examined in isoproterenol induced myocardial infarction in rats. Levels of diagnostic marker enzymes, LDH, CPK, GOT, GPT, CK, CK-MB in plasma, lipid peroxides, ascorbic acid, reduced glutathione and the activities of glutathione-dependent antioxidant enzymes GPx, GR, GST and antiperoxidate enzymes CAT, SOD and the membrane bound enzyme Na+ - K+ ATPase in the heart tissues of experimental groups of rats were determined. The prior administration of astaxanthin @ 10mg/kg feed for 45 days significantly prevented the isoproterenol-induced elevation in the levels of diagnostic marker enzymes in plasma, induction of lipid peroxidation and alterations in the level of reduced glutathione and in the activities of glutathione dependent antioxidant enzymes and antiperoxidative enzymes of experimental rats. Feeding astaxanthin caused a decrease in the inhibition of Na+ - K+ ATPase activity against isoproterenol induced myocardial infarction. The powerful cardioprotective effect of astaxanthin can be attributed to the multiple independent mechanisms viz. antioxidant effects, singlet oxygen quenching ability and inhibition of lipid peroxidation of membranes, increased functional gap junctional intercellular communication, anti-inflammatory effects etc. Immunostimulatory action of astaxanthin extract was evaluated in experimental mice. Astaxanthin administration was found to enhance the proliferation of spleen cells and bone marrow cells. Esterase activity was found to be enhanced in bone marrow cells indicating increased maturation of cells of lymophoid linkage. Astaxanthin also enhanced number of antibody forming cells and circulating antibody titre. Thus astaxanthin exhibits strong immunomodulating properties. A significant reduction in the viability of ascites tumour cells DLA in vitro was noted in the current study. The % viability was reduced to 4.34 % at a concentration of 15μg astaxanthin/ml. The cytotoxic action of astaxanthin against DLA may be through induction of apoptosis or through a different pathway. Antitumour activity of astaxanthin was studied by ascite and solid tumour models in mice. An increase in life span of about 67 % was noted in DLA bearing mice administered with astaxanthin at 5 mg/kg body weight. The tumour volume and tumour weight were significantly lower in mice injected with 5 mg/kg body weight astaxanthin. In vitro studies revealed that astaxanthin from shrimp shell waste of Aristeus alcocki inhibited the proliferation of cervical cancer cells HeLa in a dose dependent manner.ThesisItem Open Access Wood property variation in jack trees (Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.) grown in Thrissur district, Kerala(Department of Forest Products and Utilization, College of Forestry, Vellanikkara, 2020) Pavin Praize, Sunny; KAU; Anoop, E VThe present research entitled “Wood property variation in jack trees (Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.) grown in Thrissur district, Kerala" was carried out in the Department of Forest Products and Utilization, College of Forestry, Kerala Agricultural University, Vellanikkara, Thrissur, during 2017-2020. The species belonging to the family Moraceae and popularly known as jackfruit tree, is one of the important timber species commonly found in the homegardens of Kerala. The objective of this study was to assess the variation in physical, chemical, anatomical and mechanical properties of Jack wood (Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.) between different altitudinal zones (Lowland, Midland and Highland) and girth classes within these altitudinal zones of Thrissur district, Kerala. Samples of Jack wood were collected from the three altitudinal zones (Lowland, Midland and Highland) of Thrissur district belonging to three girth classes viz., 30 cm - 60 cm, 60 cm - 90 cm. and 90 cm -120 cm, following stratified random sampling techniques. In the case of physical properties such as color, moisture content, green specific gravity, oven dry specific gravity, volumetric shrinkage, tangential shrinkage and radial shrinkage, analysis showed variation between the zones for the all the three types of shrinkages. Chemical analysis of the wood for water soluble and chemically soluble extractives showed significant variation in the case of alcohol benzene soluble extractives and for NaOH soluble extractives. Rest of the parameters such as cold-water soluble extractives, hot water-soluble extractives, holocellulose content, klason lignin content, cellulose content, hemicellulose content and ash content showed no significant variation. Jack wood is diffuse porous with aliform parenchyma surrounding solitary vessels, sometimes forming bands and broad to finely arranged rays. The anatomical parameters when analyzed, showed significant variation for ray morphological characteristics whereas vessel morphology, fibre morphology and ecoanatomical properties showed no significant variation. The mechanical parameters studied which includes static bending, tension, compression and its sub parameters showed no significant variation except for Modulus of Elasticity compression perpendicular to grain. Simple correlation coefficients obtained between physical and chemical parameters, four were found to be positive and significant at 1% level of significance, two were found to be positive and significant at 5% level of significance whereas, one was reported as negatively correlated and significant at 1% and one was reported as negatively correlated and significant at 5% level of significance. The simple correlation coefficients obtained between physical and anatomical parameters, three were found to be positive and significant at 1% level of significance, two were found to be positive and significant at 5% level of significance whereas, one was reported as negatively correlated and significant at 1% and one was reported as negatively correlated and significant at 5% level of significance. Simple correlation coefficients obtained between physical and mechanical parameters, twenty were found to be positive and significant at 1% level of significance, ten were found to be positive and significant at 5% level of significance whereas, one was reported as negatively correlated and significant at 1%. The simple correlation coefficients obtained between chemical and anatomical parameters, one was found to be positive and significant at 5% level of significance, one was found to be negative and significant at 5% level of significance whereas, one was reported as negatively correlated and significant at 1%. Simple correlation coefficients obtained between chemical and mechanical parameters, eleven were found to be positive and significant at 1% level of significance, nine were found to be positive and significant at 5% level of significance whereas, one was reported as negatively correlated and significant at 5%. The simple correlation coefficients obtained between anatomical and mechanical parameters, eight were found to be positive and significant at 1% level of significance, three were found to be positive and significant at 5% level of significance whereas, three was reported as negatively correlated and significant at 5%. Coefficient of determination (R2) was observed to be more than 0.70 for oven dry specific gravity, tangential shrinkage and radial shrinkage when regressed with physical and chemical parameters. When regressed between physical and anatomical parameters R2 was observed to be more than 0.70 for green specific gravity, tangential shrinkage, radial shrinkage and volumetric shrinkage. Coefficient of determination (R2) was observed to be more than 0.70 for green specific gravity, tangential shrinkage, radial shrinkage and volumetric shrinkage when regressed with physical and mechanical parameters.ThesisItem Open Access Physiological biochemical and molecular studies in medicinal rice (Oryza sativa L.) Njavara as influenced by abiotic stresses(Department of Plant Physiology, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2020) Wagh Yogesh, Sahebrao; KAU; Viji, M MThe study entitled “Physiological, biochemical and molecular studies in medicinal rice (Oryza sativa L.), Njavara, as influenced by abiotic stresses” was conducted during 2015 to 2019 at the Department of Plant Physiology, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, Thiruvananthapuram. The objective of the study was to elicit information on the physiological, biochemical and molecular attributes associated to secondary metabolites accumulation due to abiotic stresses viz., shade, drought and UV-B stress in medicinal rice Njavara. The study was conducted as three different experiments with black glumed and yellow glumed njavara. Experiment one was a pot culture study laid out in Completely Randomized Design (CRD) with two varieties and five treatments. The study included a combination of two levels of shade stress and two levels of water deficit stress and a control with four replications and with three pots in each replication. The observations were taken at different critical stages of the crop viz., vegetative stage, panicle initiation stage, flowering stage and harvesting stage. The results revealed that the morphological characters such as plant height, leaf area index and specific leaf area were higher under 40% shade whereas under 50% field capacity, they were found to be highly reduced. Number of tillers per plant was higher under control (T5) compared to shaded and water deficit conditions. Leaf gas exchange parameters viz., photosynthetic rate, stomatal conductance and transpiration rate were lesser under both experimental conditions compared to the control. However maximum reduction of leaf gas exchange parameters were recorded at 50% field capacity (T3) followed by 40% shaded condition (T2) compared to the control (T5). Among the biochemical characters, maximum chlorophyll content was found under 40% shaded condition (T2). The biochemical parameters such as flavonoid, phenol and proline content of leaves were found higher under 50% field capacity (T3) at all the growth stages studied. The total flavonoid content in the grains was found higher under 75% field capacity (T4) followed by 20% shade treatment (T1) in both the varieties. The second experiment was carried out in pot culture in CRD with four treatments, three replications and four pots per replication. The crop was subjected to UV-B (280-320 nm) radiation with the help of UV-B fluorescent tubes during the different critical stages of plants i.e. from vegetative stage, from panicle initiation stage and from flowering stage till harvesting in ventilated polyhouse. The UV-B tubes were switched on for 4 hours daily from 10 am to 2 pm and the average intensity of UV-B radiation at the canopy level of plants was maintained at 4 Wm-2. The control was maintained in another compartment of polyhouse without UV-B tubes. The results indicated that the morphological characters viz., plant height, leaf area index, specific leaf area and tiller number reduced significantly under UV-B radiation treatment and the maximum reduction was observed in treatment T1 (UV-B treatment from vegetative stage). Leaf gas exchange parameters as well as chlorophyll content decreased significantly under UV-B radiation treatments compared to the treatment without UV-B radiation. However flavonoid, phenol and proline contents of leaves were found to increase under UV-B treatments (T1, T2 and T3). The accumulation of total flavonoid in grains was found significantly higher in treatment T2 (UV-B radiation treatment given from panicle initiation stage) in both the varieties. The treatments which resulted in the highest accumulation of flavonoid content in grains were selected from experiment 1 (20% shade and 75% field capacity) and experiment 2 (UV-B radiation treatment from panicle initiation stage) for molecular analysis in experiment 3. Protein profiling was done in leaves using SDS-PAGE in which, there was variation in the intensity of large subunit (55 kDa) as well as small subunit (16 kDa) of RuBisCO, between the varieties and the treatments. The intensity of those bands were found higher in 20% shade (T1), 75% field capacity (T2) and control (T4) whereas under UV-B radiation treatment from panicle initiation stage (T3) relatively lesser intensity was exhibited. Gene expression study in grains using qRT-PCR revealed relatively higher expression of chalcone synthase (CHS) and CYP75B4 genes in black glumed njavara (V1) than the yellow glumed njavara (V2) variety. Also the gene expression study revealed that both the genes were over expressed under T3 (UV-B radiation treatment from panicle initiation stage) and T2 (75% field capacity). But both the genes (CHS and CYP75B4) were found down regulated under T1 (20% shade) condition. The present study revealed that the flavonoid content in grains is higher in black njavara (V1) compared to yellow njavara (V2). The study also indicated that the various parameters studied viz., growth, physiological and biochemical were found to have positive influence on the flavonoid accumulation of grains. But the chlorophyll content was found to have negative influence on the flavonoid content of grains. Proline content was less in black njavara (V1) under UV-B radiation compared to yellow njavara (V2). Based on the present study it is concluded that the black glumed njavara performed better than yellow glumed njavara under all the stress conditions studied and can be exploited better for its therapeutic value. Application of mild stress levels viz., water deficit (75% field capacity) or UV-B radiation treatment from panicle initiation stage may be utilized to enhance the medicinal quality of this crop.ThesisItem Open Access Phytochemical profiling and genetic diversity analysis of Mangifere indica Linn. varieties of Kerala(Department of Biotechnology, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2020) Bona Sajimon; KAU; Rameshkumar, K BThe study entitled “Phytochemical profiling and genetic diversity analysis of Mangifera indica Linn. varieties in Kerala” was carried out at the Phytochemistry and Phytopharmacology Division of Jawaharlal Nehru Tropical Botanic Garden and Research Institute, Palode, Thiruvananthapuram during the academic year 2019 – 2020. The objective of the study was to map and authenticate selected local varieties of Mangifera indica in Kerala through phytochemical profiling of leaf volatile chemicals and the genetic diversity analysis using SCoT marker polymorphisms. Essential oils were obtained from the mature leaves of ten local mango varieties through hydrodistillation using a Clevenger-type apparatus and were analysed using GC-MS. A total of 55 volatile compounds ranging from 92.2 % to 98.0 % were identified from the ten varieties studied. Monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes were the major class of compounds among the identified volatiles. The prominent ones from this terpene classes include bicyclogermacrene, α-gurjunene, α-pinene, α-phellandrene, E-caryophyllene, terpinolene, δ-3-carene, limonene, α-humulene, germacrene D, β-selinene and germacrene B. While the statistical analysis of the varieties using their phytochemical composition clustered Vellari and Kilichundan as the nearest neighbours, Moovandan and Pulinji emerged as two distinct varieties from others in comparison. SCoT Primers proved to be a fine tool in studying the genetic diversity of M. indica varieties with an average polymorphism of 82% among the ten studied varieties. The varieties Kilichundan, Moovandan, Neelam and Kottoorkonam appeared as the ones with highest genetic similarity. Though the phytochemical and genetic diversities observed among the varieties are not directly linkable, the analyses helped to establish fine distinction between the varieties.ThesisItem Open Access Investigations on soil crop and machine parameters towards the development of a root crop harvester(Department of Farm Machinery and Power Engineering, Kelappaji College of Agricultural Engineering and Technology,Tavanur, 2020) Basavaraj; KAU; Jayan, P RThe tractor drawn root harvester was designed and developed by considering soil, crop and machine parameters and performance evaluation of the machine was carried out in the experimental area at KCAET, Tavanur and different farmers’ fields at Palakkad and Thrissur districts. The developed machine mainly consists of main frame, power transmission system, digging and soil separator units. The effect of three blade geometries viz., straight edge, V-type and crescent blades at three rake angles of 15, 20 and 25 deg. and at three forward speeds of 1.5, 2.0 and 2.5 km h-1 for the digging unit of the harvester were evaluated in terms of draft, digging efficiency, per cent damage of tuber/rhizome and fuel consumption of tractor mounted harvester for harvesting coleus, ginger and turmeric. The best optimal condition was observed at a forward speed of 2.0 km h-1 with 20 deg. rake angle for V-type blade. The soil separator unit of the harvester was evaluated along the digging operation. The soil separator unit was tested with different operational parameters viz., diameter of crank 40, 60 and 80 mm and spring tension 800, 1200 and 1600 N m-1. The best optimal operational conditions were observed at a spring tension of 1600 N m-1 with 80 mm diameter of crank. The maximum draft of 2009.52 N was recorded in straight blade while the minimum of 1418.66 N was observed in V-type blade. The maximum digging efficiency of 99.89 per cent was noticed in V-type blade, whereas the lowest of 84.15 per cent in straight edge blade. The least damage coleus of 0.59 per cent was observed in V-type blade whereas highest of 5.5 per cent was obtained in crescent blade. Among the different type of blades tested, the less fuel consumption of 3.80 l h-1 was noticed for V-type blade, whereas the maximum of 4.98 l h-1 for straight edge blade. In the case of harvesting ginger, the maximum draft of 2176.33 N was recorded in straight edge blade while the minimum of 1374.31 N was observed in V- type blade. The maximum digging efficiency of 99.57 per cent was noticed in V-type blade, whereas the lowest of 80.40 per cent in straight edge blade. The least damage coleus of 0.86 per cent was observed in V-type blade whereas highest of 6.05 per cent was obtained in crescent blade. Among the different type of blades, the less fuel consumption of 3.74 l h-1 was noticed for V-type blade, whereas the maximum of 5.19 l h-1 for straight edge blade. In the case of harvesting of turmeric, the maximum draft of 2192.08 N was recorded in straight edge blade while the minimum of 1390.06 N was observed in V-type blade. The maximum digging efficiency of 99.50 per cent was noticed in V-type blade, whereas the lowest of 81.91 per cent was recorded with the straight edge blade. The least per cent damage coleus of 0.74 per cent was observed in V-type blade whereas highest of 7.3 per cent was obtained in crescent blade. Among the different type of blades, the less fuel consumption of 4.0 l h-1 was noticed for V- type blade, whereas the maximum of 5.57 l h-1 for straight edge blade. The field capacity of the machine for coleus, ginger and turmeric were 0.15, 0.16 and 0.16 ha h-1 respectively and the field efficiencies were 86.11, 88.89 and 88.89 per cent respectively. The soil separation indices of root crop harvester for coleus, ginger and turmeric were found out as 82.71, 73.22 and 68.82 per cent respectively where as the conveying efficiencies were 90.70, 87.55 and 89.71 per cent respectively. The estimated cost of the prototype tractor drawn root crop harvester was as Rs. 60,000. The cost of operation was found out as Rs. 767.57 per hour. The saving in cost over root crop harvester for three root crops was 89 per cent. The machine has BEP of 40 h, PBP as 1.5 years and BCR as 10.7.
