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Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur
The history of agricultural education in Kerala can be traced back to the year 1896 when a scheme was evolved in the erstwhile Travancore State to train a few young men in scientific agriculture at the Demonstration Farm, Karamana, Thiruvananthapuram, presently, the Cropping Systems Research Centre under Kerala Agricultural University. Agriculture was introduced as an optional subject in the middle school classes in the State in 1922 when an Agricultural Middle School was started at Aluva, Ernakulam District. The popularity and usefulness of this school led to the starting of similar institutions at Kottarakkara and Konni in 1928 and 1931 respectively.
Agriculture was later introduced as an optional subject for Intermediate Course in 1953. In 1955, the erstwhile Government of Travancore-Cochin started the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, Thiruvananthapuram and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences at Mannuthy, Thrissur for imparting higher education in agricultural and veterinary sciences, respectively. These institutions were brought under the direct administrative control of the Department of Agriculture and the Department of Animal Husbandry, respectively. With the formation of Kerala State in 1956, these two colleges were affiliated to the University of Kerala. The post-graduate programmes leading to M.Sc. (Ag), M.V.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees were started in 1961, 1962 and 1965 respectively.
On the recommendation of the Second National Education Commission (1964-66) headed by Dr. D.S. Kothari, the then Chairman of the University Grants Commission, one Agricultural University in each State was established. The State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) were established in India as an integral part of the National Agricultural Research System to give the much needed impetus to Agriculture Education and Research in the Country. As a result the Kerala Agricultural University (KAU) was established on 24th February 1971 by virtue of the Act 33 of 1971 and started functioning on 1st February 1972. The Kerala Agricultural University is the 15th in the series of the SAUs.
In accordance with the provisions of KAU Act of 1971, the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, were brought under the Kerala Agricultural University. In addition, twenty one agricultural and animal husbandry research stations were also transferred to the KAU for taking up research and extension programmes on various crops, animals, birds, etc.
During 2011, Kerala Agricultural University was trifurcated into Kerala Veterinary and Animal Sciences University (KVASU), Kerala University of Fisheries and Ocean Studies (KUFOS) and Kerala Agricultural University (KAU).
Now the University has seven colleges (four Agriculture, one Agricultural Engineering, one Forestry, one Co-operation Banking & Management), six RARSs, seven KVKs, 15 Research Stations and 16 Research and Extension Units under the faculties of Agriculture, Agricultural Engineering and Forestry. In addition, one Academy on Climate Change Adaptation and one Institute of Agricultural Technology offering M.Sc. (Integrated) Climate Change Adaptation and Diploma in Agricultural Sciences respectively are also functioning in Kerala Agricultural University.
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ThesisItem Open Access Genetic variability and plus tree selection in natural populations of Malaveppu (Melia dubia Cav.)(Department of Forest biology and tree improvement, Vellanikkara, 2019) Binu Kamalolbhavan, N; KAU; Santhoshkumar, A VMelia dubia commonly known as Malabar neem is a fast growing indigenous species. It is considered as a major wood in plywood and paper industries and the plant is put into various medicinal uses, preferred for use in packing cases, cigar planks etc. There are no identified genotypes of melia, suitable for Kerala. This is one of the reasons which has made a dearth in the availability of good planting material. Hence, a study was conducted to determine the genetic diversity of the trees and select plus trees from the forests of Kerala. Fifteen locations spread over eighteen localities where the species is common were identified from secondary data and reconnaissance survey. In total 281 trees were selected for the survey. The important quantitative and qualitative characters of the trees were determined. Based on baseline selection system, a regression analysis was done between the (DBH)2 x height and (crown width)2 x crown length separately for each location and the trees above the regression line having highest score for the qualitative characters were selected. This was to ensure that a minimum of one tree got selected from a locality to ensure diversity in selection. The study showed that variability existed for all the qualitative characters and it was more within the localities when compared to between localities. In total twenty five trees were selected. Clustering done for the twenty five plus showed that Melia dubia genetic resources resolved the trees into seven clusters and it was found that grouping were independent to the geographic locations. Inter and intra cluster divergence were also studied. The evaluation of the seedling progenies from the twenty five plus trees were done in the nursery for five months. Significant differences among the progenies of the selected trees were observed for various morphological and physiological characters studied. The performance of the progenies of two trees from Tholpetty (FCV-MD-03 and FCV-MD-04) were the best in most of the parameters studied. The genetic analysis of the causes of variation for the morphological and physiological traits were studied. The values for the phenotypic coefficient of variations ranged from 12.62 per cent for height to 24.53 per cent for biovolume. ii The result indicated that the values for genotypic coefficient of variation was less than the phenotypic coefficient of variations for all the traits studied, indicating existence of environmental effect on these characters. Heritability estimates in broad sense were observed higher than 50 per cent for the quantitative characters such as height, collar diameter, number of leaves, AGR and biovolume. Heritability was also higher for all the physiological characters studied. The genetic gain was also high indicating possibilities of using selections for further breeding. The correlation studies on the morphological and physiological characters showed that the height was positively correlated with all the morphological and physiological characters studied except leaf temperature. Photosynthetic rate was positively correlated with the height, chlorophyll and relative water content of the leaves. For standardization of clonal progenies, cuttings from the seedlings, semi hardwood cuttings from mature trees and root suckers by damaging the roots were taken to develop a method for mass multiplication of the Melia dubia. Three different auxins IBA, NAA, IAA at different concentrations were administered. The result showed that the best treatment for the cuttings and rootsuckers were IBA at 1000 ppm. For the semihardwood cuttings, miniclonal technology was used and the best treatment observed was IBA at 6000 ppm.ThesisItem Open Access Characterization and identification of black pepper accessions (Piper nigrum L.) for stress tolerance and quality(Department of plant breeding, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2019) Prakash, K M; KAU; Jiji, JosephBlack pepper (Piper nigrum L.), often described as the ‘King of spices’ is the most important spice crop, grown for its berries in the world. Indian pepper is preferred across the globe due to its intrinsic qualities. Foot rot is a devastating disease of black pepper. In the changing climate, drought can be a major threat in black pepper production. Hence, the present study was taken up at College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara and ICAR-IISR, Kozhikode to characterise and to identify superior accessions of black pepper for yield, quality and tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses. Fifty accessions of black pepper in the bearing stage maintained in the National Active Germplasm Site of ICAR-IISR, Kozhikode formed the base material for the study. The accessions were characterised for fifty qualitative and fifty quantitative characters following the descriptor developed by IPGRI (1995). Wide variability was observed among the accessions for ten qualitative characters. Quantitative characters of shoot, leaf, spike and fruit also showed wide variability. Field tolerance to foot rot disease and pollu beetle infestation was observed among the accessions. Twenty accessions were selected from the base collection based on superiority of yield (> 450g green berries/vine) , field tolerance to foot rot disease infection (biotic susceptibility score 1) and pollu beetle infestation (biotic susceptibility score 1-3). They were further evaluated for biochemical principles of quality, tolerance to foot rot disease under artificial inoculation and tolerance to drought by physiological and biochemical analyses. Piperine, essential oil and oleoresin ranged from 3.61 - 6.96 per cent, 3.00 - 5.87 per cent and 7.10 - 11.18 per cent, respectively, across the accessions. The accessions with high value of piperine, essential oil and oleoresin were identified as 7293, 7211 and 7289 respectively. The two accessions identified viz. 7293 and 7252 contained more piperine than the highest of Panniyur 2 (6.6 per cent) reported among the released varieties . Artificial inoculation of selected accessions using Phytophthora capsici culture for screening for foot rot disease resistance based on over all disease severity index of both stem and leaf lesions showed that accession 7259 was moderately resistant. The selected accessions did not exhibit significant variation for various physiological and biochemical parameters at field capacity. However higher value of photosynthesis, chlorophyll content, chlorophyll stability index, relative water content and membrane stability index and low leaf temperature were observed for accessions viz. 7215, 7240, P 5 and 7241 after five days and ten days of moisture stress induction following field capacity compared to other accessions. Higher values of proline, SOD, catalase and peroxidase were also observed for these accessions. The visual scoring showed that accessions with higher values for most of physiological and biochemical parameters of drought tolerance viz. 7215, 7240, P5, and 7241 had lesser number of fallen leaves and more number of leaves retained at permanent wilting point (PWP). The accessions 7215 and 7240 took twenty days to reach PWP compared to eleven accessions which took only 16 days to reach PWP. Foliar nutrition with sulphate of potash, IISR - Power mix and Pink Pigmented Facultative Methylotrophs (PPFM) had positive effect on drought tolerance for the accessions (7215, 7240, P5 and 7241) having natural tolerance. The identified accessions with high yield , quality and tolerance to biotic or abiotic stress can be used for further breeding programme.ThesisItem Open Access Dynamics in prices and trade of Indian small cardmom and its implications on producers(Department of Agriculture Economics, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2019) Indhushree, A; KAU; Anil, KuruvilaIndian small cardamom is known worldwide for its quality and is exported to many countries around the world. Formerly, India enjoyed a monopoly in the production and export of small cardamom in the world. Since 1980s, the country lost its share in the international market to Guatemala due to comparatively higher price and increasing domestic demand for the commodity. The present study on “Dynamics in prices and trade of Indian small cardamom and its implications on producers” was undertaken with the objectives, to study the economics of small cardamom cultivation and marketing, analyse the price formation and transmission between Indian and international markets, study the supply response of cardamom, analyse India’s export performance and competitiveness and assess the implications of changes in price and trade at the farm level. The study was based on both primary and secondary data. In order to estimate the economics of cultivation and marketing of small cardamom, primary data were collected from 160 selected farm households in Idukki district of Kerala and from 52 market intermediaries in Kerala and Tamil Nadu. The secondary data on area, production, prices and exports of small cardamom published by various institutions for the period from 1970-71 to 2017-18 were collected in order to study the price formation and transmission between the international and domestic markets, to find out the export performance and competitiveness of Indian small cardamom and supply response of cardamom to prices. The economics of small cardamom cultivation in Idukki district of Kerala was estimated using the concepts of establishment cost and maintenance cost. The total cost of cultivation and production of small cardamom in Idukki district were estimated as ₹4,79,040 per hectare and ₹375 per kg respectively, while the net returns earned by the farmers was ₹9,18,366 per hectare. The major marketing channels identified for small cardamom were, Channel I: Producer-Village trader-Auctioneer-Wholesaler-Retailer-Consumer; Channel II: Producer-Auctioneer-Wholesaler-Retailer-Consumer; Channel III: Producer-Village trader-Auctioneer-Exporter-Consumer and Channel IV: Producer-Auctioneer-Wholesaler-Upcountry wholesaler-Retailer-Consumer. Majority of the farmers (49 per cent) were selling their produce to the village traders, while 32 per ii cent of the farmers were selling to auctioneers. The marketing efficiency was found to be highest in channel II because of the low marketing cost and margin, and high producer’s share in consumer’s rupee. The marketing efficiency was found to be lowest in channel III. The co-movement between the cardamom prices in the Indian and international markets was confirmed in the post-WTO period, while there was no integration in the pre-WTO period. The transmission of price signals between Indian and international markets was also established for period I, period III and period IV. The price series of different grades of cardamom in the domestic market were found to be moving together in almost all the periods considered. Thus, the price of cardamom in one market was found to be having considerable influence on the price prevailing in the other market after the liberalisation of trade. The Error Correction Model (ECM) indicated the presence of short-run disequilibrium between the Indian and international prices, and between the prices of different grades of cardamom, which got corrected with varying speed of adjustment. Granger causality test confirmed that the price transmission was from the international market to the Indian market in the long-run. The elasticity of supply of small cardamom with respect to its own price lagged by two years was positive and significant in both the short-run (0.39) and long-run (0.96). The rate of growth in the export of small cardamom from India increased, while the instability in export declined in the post-WTO period as compared to the pre-WTO period. The export quantity contributed to about 80 per cent growth in the export value of small cardamom in the post-WTO period. Nearly 85 per cent of change in the variance of export value in the post-WTO period was due to the change in the variability of export unit value of small cardamom. Among the different periods considered for the study, period I recorded a higher growth rate of export and lower instability in terms of value and unit value, while period II witnessed the lowest and negative growth rate with high instability in the export of small cardamom. Geographic concentration of small cardamom export from India always remained high and it further increased in the post-WTO period. Over the years from period I to period V, there was a steady and gradual increase in the geographic concentration of export. There was a changing pattern in the stability of export markets for Indian small cardamom, and the probability of retention of major countries was iii declining over the years with the exception of Saudi Arabia. It was found that Saudi Arabia, Malaysia, Japan and UAE were the stable markets in both pre-WTO and post-WTO periods. Even though India gained considerable market share of new markets viz., UK, Iran and Bangladesh, it lost some of the traditional export markets viz., Kuwait, UAE and Qatar. The export demand for Indian small cardamom was determined by the GDP per capita in the importing countries in both pre-WTO and post-WTO periods, while the export supply was influenced by the ratio of export price to domestic price and the domestic production. The indices of export competitiveness viz., the Nominal Protection Coefficient (NPC) and Effective Protection Coefficient (EPC) values were greater than one (1.33) indicating lower export competitiveness of Indian small cardamom. Domestic Resource Cost Ratio (DRCR) was less than one (0.22) which indicated India’s comparative advantage in the production of small cardamom. Variance in producer prices influences the welfare of the farmers by affecting their income. The variance in exchange rate was found to be the major source of variation in producer prices in the pre-WTO period and period II, while the variance in export unit value was the major determinant in the post-WTO period, period I and period III. The challenges in small cardamom cultivation need to be addressed by introducing varieties that are both pest resistant and high yielding, formulating effective organic inputs and providing replanting subsidy at a reasonable rate to the farmers. Regarding the price and trade of cardamom, crop specific price stabilization mechanism is needed to tackle the excessive volatility in cardamom prices. More transparency is required in the e-auction system to reduce re-pooling by traders and ensure faster payment to the farmers. In order to promote export and improve India’s competitiveness, farmers should be encouraged to follow Good Agricultural Practises (GAP) that will help to reduce the input usage, which will in turn improve the quality of the commodity and reduce the cost of production. Effective ban on toxic chemicals at the national level is necessary to keep the residual toxic content in small cardamom within the permissible limits. Branding of Indian small cardamom which is of superior quality could also help in promotion of the commodity in the international market.ThesisItem Open Access Process optimisation and quality evaluation of cocoa based chocolates(Department of Community Science, College of Horticulture,Vellanikkara, 2019) Shahanas, E; KAU; Seeja, Thomachan PanjikkaranCocoa (Theobroma cacao) is a supporting crop to farmers due to its remunerative income, which forms the basis for one of the world’s most popular food products chocolate. The quality of final product depends upon the fermented dried beans. High free fatty acid content is a serious quality defect and reduces the economic value of the cocoa beans. Recently, the cocoa trade has assumed a more scientific position and a lot of emphasis are placed on the content of free fatty acid. A reduction in the free fatty acids level will definitely have a positive impact. As such there is a need for the farmers to carry more intensive research and to develop and technology for the standardisation of free fatty acid content in the processing stages of cocoa in both primary and secondary processing. The present study was undertaken to develop protocol for primary processing of cocoa beans based on free fatty acid content (<1.75 %), to standardise the time and temperature of chocolate making using machine and to evaluate the quality attributes and shelf life of the products. Cocoa fermentation was carried out with three different types of fermentation methods like basket, heap and sack method for the periods of 5, 6 and 7 days of fermentation with nine different treatments. The physico-chemical qualities of fermented cocoa beans were evaluated. The highest (84.99%) fermentation index or cut test score was recorded in heap method at seventh day of fermentation (T6). The highest fermentation bean recovery of 84.33% was noticed in treatment T4 in heap method at fifth day of fermentation. The moisture content vary from 50.40 %, 53.67% and 54.40% to 39.80%, 37.83% and 39.43% from initial to seventh day of fermentation in sack, heap and basket method respectively. The pH of fermented beans varied from 6.11 to 4.26 in all methods. Among the fermentation methods the maximum fat content was in heap method from initial 42.66% to 32.89%. The lipase activity, decreased with fermentation periods in all three fermentation methods. In heap method it varied from 0.0022 to 0.0005. The heap method with seven days of fermentation were selected to sun drying and oven drying based on the lowest free fatty acid content (0.80%). The bean recovery of fermented dried beans was high (41.00 %) in sun dried cocoa beans as compared to oven dried beans (40.12 %). The free fatty acid content (1.26 %) in sun dried cocoa beans was less compared to 1.47% in T2 (oven dried beans). The moisture content (3.76%) and lipase activity (0.0018μ eq) was less but, the fat content and pH was high in sun dried beans. The sun drying proved to be adaptive as free fatty acid content was lower than oven dried beans and were below the cut off value of 1.75%. The sun dried beans were stored in gunny bags (control), polythene covers and plastic containers under ambient condition for a period of six months and the physico-chemical qualities of stored cocoa beans were done initially and at an interval of one month for a duration of six months. The highest bean recovery (98%) and least moisture content (4.22 to 4.52) was in cocoa beans stored in plastic container at the end of sixth month of storage. The lowest free fatty acid content of 1.68% was in cocoa beans stored in plastic container at sixth month after storage. The stored cocoa beans in plastic container were divided into two lots, one lot was used as such and the second lot was subjected to alkalisation. The chocolates was prepared with alkalised and non alkalised cocoa beans in tempering and conching machine for different time periods of 7, 9 and 11 hours at a temperature of 600C and 700. After the preparation of different types of alkalised and non alkalised chocolates in tempering and conching machine, chocolates were subjected to analysis of physico-chemical qualities, organoleptic evaluation and for enumeration of microflora. The treatment T6 (Chocolate prepared at 700C for 11 hours) and T12 (700C for 11hours) had the lowest free fatty acid content of 1.67% and 1.68% and maximum score for overall acceptability (8.89 and 8,87). Chocolates prepared at 700C for 11 hours from alkalised and non alkalised beans were blended with dehydrated grapes, dehydrated dates, osmodehydrated jackfruit, osmodehydrated pineapple, badam, cashew nut, powdered dehydrated mint leaves and white pepper powder. From the, organoleptic evaluation of different treatments, the best rated treatments from alkalised chocolates were T3 (95 % alkalised chocolates +5% osmodehydrated jack fruit), T6 (95 % alkalised chocolates +5% badam) and T8 (95 % alkalised chocolates +5% white pepper) and from non alkalised chocolates the treatments T11 (95 % non alkalised chocolates +5% osmodehydrated jack fruit), T14 (chocolate blended with 95 % non alkalised chocolates and 5% badam) and T16 (95 % non alkalised chocolates and 5% white pepper powder) were selected, packed in aluminium foil and stored in refrigerator for six months. Initially the lowest hardness of 74.41N and 76.71N was recorded in controls (T0 - AC) and (T0 – NAC. The maximum energy content of 580.15Kcal was found in treatment T5 (95 % NAC+5% B). Initially the maximum protein content (7.74 g/100g) was noticed in treatment T2 (95 % AC+5% B) and T5 (95 % NAC+5% B). The highest polyphenol content ranging from 0.23g/100g to 0.19g/100g was seen in T0 (100% NAC) throughout the storage periods. A reduction in mineral contents like calcium, phosphorus and iron content was observed in all treatments and at the end of sixth month calcium content varied from 0.39g/100g to 0.63g/100g. An increase in lipase activity and free fatty acid content of blended chocolates was recorded during storage and FFA was within 1.75% up to fourth month of storage. Based on organoleptic score, the treatment T2 (95 % AC+5% B) attained the highest rank. The blended chocolates were evaluated for the presence of bacteria, yeast and mould initially and monthly intervals for a period of six months, At the end of sixth month of storage the highest bacterial count of 2.0 x 104 cfu/g was found and during sixth month of storage. The cost for blended chocolates was varied from Rs.46.54 to Rs.50.62 / 40 g of chocolate bar. The cost of the chocolates prepared in the present study was lesser as compared to the commercial chocolates. The present study found that good quality, nutritious and healthy blended chocolates using cocoa could be prepared without adding any preservatives. The blended chocolates contain treasure of nutrients and bioactive compounds polyphenol which is essential for the growth and development of children and also give several health benefits.ThesisItem Open Access Morpho-Molecular charaterisation of intergeneric hybrids of Ascocentrum(Department of Floriculture and Landscaping, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2019) Katare Renuka, Shamrao; KAU; Sobhana, A.Morpho-molecular characterisation intergeneric hybrids of Ascocentrum was conducted at the Department of Floriculture and landscaping, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, during 2016-19 with the objective of characterising based on morphological and molecular analysis for commercial exploitation and compatibility assessment. Thirty varieties selected for the morphological characterisation. In quantitative characters Mok. Omayaiy Yellow showed highest plant height, internodal length and leaf breadth throughout the study period. Plant spread, leaf length and leaf area were highest in Kag. Youthong Beauty. Mok. Sayan × Ascda. Doung Porn was observed with highest shoot girth, shoot diameter and number of leaves. Ascda. Yip Sum Wah × V. JVB showed maximum number of roots, Mok. Khaw Phiak Suan × Ascda. Jiraprapa was observed with the highest root length and Mok. Chao Praya Sunset Yellow Spot with the highest root girth. Vasco. Aroonsri Beauty had the least values in all vegetative characters throughout the study period including plant height, spread, internodal length, shoot, leaf and root characters except the number of leaves which was the least in Mok. Khaw Phiak Suan × Ascda. Jiraprapa. Variety Vasco. Aroonsri Beauty also produced the maximum number of florets/spike and had the shortest internodal length. Cluster analysis with 14 different floral characters revealed 12 clusters at 75 per cent similarity. The highest inter-cluster distance was observed in cluster 6 and cluster 10. Cluster 6, which included Ascda. Sirichi Fragrance and Vasco Blue Bay White was found to have the lowest internodal length with the highest value LVII for number of florets per spike, also observed to have lower flower length and flower width. Cluster 10 was found to have the high mean values for spike length, flower length and flower width. In qualitative characters, based on growth habit, two types were found among the varieties viz., hanging and prostrate nature of growth. Leaf texture was found smooth and rigid with entire leaf margin. Leaf apex was acute in Vasco. Aroonsri Beauty and Ascda. Yip Sum Wah × V. JVB and was emarginated in rest of the hybrids. Wide variation was found among the flower colour, colour pattern, nature of petals and lip. Regarding post harvest traits, variety Mok. Omayaiy Yellow recorded highest fresh weight of spike and physiogical loss in weight. Whereas, variety Kag. Youthong Beauty took maximum days to start wilting of a floret. Mok. Chark Kuan Pink was observed to have longest vase life, spike longevity and highest water uptake. In visual evaluation the highest total mean score for the spike to use as a cut flower was observed in Mok. Omayaiy Yellow (54.6 out of 60), while the lowest was observed in Vasco. Blue Bay White. The highest mean score was obtained in Vasco. Pine River Pink (53.83) for plants for the indoor display. In pollen studies Ascda. Sirichi Fragrance and Mok. Sayan × Ascda. Doung Porn showed the highest pollen fertility and germination and these were selected as two male parents for further cross compatibility check. Vasco. Aroonsri Beauty and Kag. Youthong Beauty were found self-incompatible as well as cross incompatible with both the male patents and Vasco. Pine River Blue was found cross incompatible with Mok. Sayan. × Ascda. Doung Porn whereas, the rest of the varieties were found cross-compatible with both the male parents. LVIII Among the 21 SSR primers, ten generated polymorphic patterns. The number of amplicons detected varied from two to seven. The highest number of alleles was found in FJ539054, FJ539061 and JN375718. Primers DQ494847 (3) observed to have less number of amplicons. The PIC value ranged from 0.095 to 0.800.. One unique band was produced by JN375713 and FJ539050 primers in Kag. Samrong and Vasco. Aroonsri Beauty, respectively. The least Jaccard’s similarity value (0.05) was observed between Kag. Samrong and Ascda. Suksamran Sunlight, Ascda. Yip Sum Wah × V. Josephine Van Brero, Vasco. Aroonsri Beauty. The UPGMA clustering algorithm grouped the varieties into two main clusters. The variety Kag. Samrong clustered separately from all other members, whereas, other members were grouped in one cluster. At 50 per cent level of similarity, the hybrids grouped into 13 clusters. Out of 29 ISSR primers used, 20 showed amplification in all hybrids with polymorphic bands. ISSR primer (GACAC) 4 generated 11 amplicons, whereas, ISSR 901 generated 31 amplicons. ISSR primer (GACAC) 4 had lowest PIC value, and UBC810, the highest PIC value (0.926). The least Jaccard’s similarity value (0.03) was observed between Vasco. Blue Bay White and Mok. Khaw Phiak Suan × Ascda. Bicentennial Yellow Spot, which indicates that these hybrids are dissimilar to each other. The highest Jaccard’s similarity value was observed between Mok. Khaw Phiak Suan × Ascda. Bicentennial Yellow Spot and Mok. Chao Praya Sunset Yellow Spot. A UPGMA-based dendrogram separated the 20 hybrids of Ascocentrum orchids into two main clusters, each with 10 members. At 30 per cent level of similarity, all the 20 hybrids grouped into 14 different clusters. Six clusters were observed with two members each.ThesisItem Open Access Taxonomy and organic carbon-nutrient interactions in selected wetland soils of Kerala(Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2019) Nideesh, P; KAU; Sreelatha, A KA study was undertaken with the objective to classify wet land soils in the agro ecological units AEU 10 (north central laterite), AEU 5 (Kole lands) and AEU 6 (Pokkali lands) of Kerala and to assess the organic carbon stocks and CNPS stoichiometry. The study also aimed in finding out the organic carbon - nutrient interactions and to predict the organic carbon turnover in these soils. Extensive field traverse was conducted to select sites for profile excavation in the lateritic, Kole and Pokkali wetlands. The excavated profiles were studied for their morphological, physical and chemical properties. Based on the results of the study, soils of lateritic wetlands were classified as fine loamy, mixed, super active, acid isohyperthermic, Fluventic Dystrustepts. Soils of Kole lands were classified as loamy, mixed, euic, isohyperthermic, Terric Sulfihemists and Pokkali soils as coarse loamy over sandy, mixed, active, isohyperthermic, Typic Sulfaquepts. Total soil organic carbon (SOC) stock in the north central laterite region (Fluventic Dystrustepts) was 218 Mg ha-1 up to the depth of 120 cm of which maximum amount was stored in the surface 30 cm (86 Mg ha-1). In the Kole land soil (Terric Sulfihemists) maximum SOC was stored in the 90-120 cm layer (1016 Mg ha-1) and a total SOC of 2261 Mg ha-1 was stored up to 120 cm depth. Pokkali soils (Typic Sulfaquepts) stored 209 Mg ha-1 SOC up to 120 cm depth which was almost uniformly distributed in the entire profile. The C/N, C/P and C/S ratios decreased with depth in lateritic soil profile, whereas in the Kole land soil these ratios except C/S ratio increased significantly in the sub surface horizons. In the Pokkali soils the CNPS stoichiometry suffered irregular variation with depth. An incubation experiment was conducted to study the organic carbon nutrient interactions in the three wetland soils. Treatments included control (T1), POP based fertiliser and lime application (T2), soil test based fertiliser and lime application (T3), FYM substituting nitrogen in the T3 treatment (T4) and soil test based fertiliser and dolomite application (T5). In the lateritic soils. the active carbon and organic reserves of N, P and S were high in T3 treatment. The organic N, P and S pools increased in treatment T5 whereas organic P and inorganic S increased in treatment T4. In the Kole land soils, active carbon, organic nitrogen, inorganic P, organic S and inorganic S increased in T3; inorganic N and organic P increased in T4 and organic P and S pools increased in T5. In the Pokkali soils, active carbon content was high in T2 compared to other treatments while active carbon, organic N and inorganic N decreased in treatment T3. Liming decreased organic P in Pokkali soils due to conversion to available forms and higher utilisation. Application of FYM increased organic S in Pokkali soils and inorganic S in all soils. Temporal variation of the nutrient content (mg kg-1 soil) per organic carbon content (g kg-1 of soil) indicates the change in nutrient supply per unit change of organic carbon content. Treatment T1 favoured higher inorganic nitrogen per carbon content in laterite and Pokkali soils, where as in in Kole soils it was increased in T4. Inorganic phosphorus content per carbon was highest in laterite and lowest in Kole soil in control (T1). Inorganic sulphur per carbon content was highest in T4 for laterite, Kole and Pokkali soils. Organic nitrogen per carbon content was highest in the Kole land and minimum in the Pokkali land in the T3 treatment. Organic phosphorus per carbon content was maximum in FYM treatment in Kole and Pokkali soils and was minimum in T2 treatment in laterite and Pokkali soils. Treatment T3 had the highest organic sulphur per carbon content in the laterite and Kole soils and the treatment T1 gave the highest content in Pokkali soil. Wetland DNDC model was used to simulate the organic carbon turn over in the three wetland systems using the climatic data predicted by MarkSIM software. The results of modelling simulated for the year 2050 indicated that application of 100 per cent NPK along with FYM @ 5t ha-1 will ensure maximum organic carbon content in the Kole, Pokkali and lateritic wetlands. Fertiliser application improves the organic carbon storage in lateritic and Kole land soils. But in the Pokkali soils, fertiliser addition will not cause change in the organic carbon turn over processes whereas FYM application can improve the carbon content. Results of the study indicate that cultivation without any fertiliser and lime application causes gradual depletion of all organic and inorganic pools of nutrients in Kole land and lateritic wetland soils. Soil test based fertiliser and lime application along with FYM @ 5t ha-1 is appropriate in these soils for increased sustainability. The Pokkali soils are self-sufficient and can sustain its fertility status without any fertiliser application. However liming and FYM application may be considered as management options to improve sulphur availability and organic carbon turn over processes in these soils.ThesisItem Open Access Dynamics and competitiveness of agricultural trade polices on coconut economy of Kerala(Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2019) Thasnimol, F; KAU; Prema, ACoconut is a crop of economic importance in many Asian and Pacific countries. India is the largest producer of coconut in the world contributing 23798.23 million nuts from an area of 2.09 million ha (CDB, 2018). The economic reforms of the 1990s and the subsequent trade liberalization policies have brought challenges and prospects to Indian agriculture including the coconut industry. In this context, the present study was undertaken with the objectives to trace and assess the impact of trade policies in edible oil on coconut economy of Kerala, to analyse the price transmission in the markets, to estimate the efficiency of selected coconut markets and finally to suggest appropriate policy measures for improving the performance of coconut trade. Both primary and secondary data were used for examining the specific objectives of the study. The primary data were collected using well-structured and pretested schedules through a survey of 90 farmers, 45 market intermediaries and 15 exporters in the selected districts of Kerala. Secondary data was mainly collected from authentic sources like CDB, EXIM data bank, DGCI&S, DGFT and FAO statistics. Though trade liberalization adversely affected the coconut farmers during the initial phase of liberalization, it subsequently increased the opportunities of the Indian coconut sector to compete in the world market. The export growth rate of coconut products has increased during the study period (1980-81 to 2016-17) while instability index, a measure of export stability was found to have decreased. The high growth rates of coconut products together with low instability indices in the export revealed the prospects for Indian coconut sector in the global market. Hence stream lining the production through Good Agricultural Practices to fulfill the export market requirements with regard to quality and safety would boost the trade. The comparative advantage in coconut trade analysed using the Revealed Symmetric Comparative Advantage (RSCA) indicated that coconut oil and desiccated coconut did not possess any comparative advantage in global trade, while coconut (fresh and dried) and copra have comparative advantage. It was obvious from the result that rather than focusing on the export of coconut oil and desiccated coconut, India must give much effort to increase our export share of coconut, copra and other value-added coconut products to augment the foreign earnings. The trade policies concerning edible oils at the national level were found to have an impact on the coconut oil prices in Kerala too. Exponential growth rates were computed to compare the growth of edible oil imports and coconut oil prices in Kerala. The significant improvement in the growth rates of edible oil import and decline in the growth rates of coconut oil price confirmed that trade liberalisation and further Free Trade Agreements (FTAs) facilitated the huge import of edible oil from other countries which unfavorably affected the domestic coconut economy. The result of the Policy Analysis Matrix (PAM) unveiled that coconut oil production in Kerala was competitive at the given level of technologies, prices of inputs and outputs and current policy stipulations. However, social profitability, a measure of efficiency or comparative advantage was observed to be negative. The result depicted that coconut oil production in Kerala lacks comparative advantage in production and the state was not able to use the available resources efficiently. The efficiency of selected coconut markets studied using Shepherd’s index indicated that the presence of more number of marketing intermediaries and high marketing cost and margin have reduced the producer’s share in consumer’s rupee. Besides, high wage rates, shortage of skilled labour, lack of processing technologies, adverse climatic conditions, etc., obstruct the farmers in performing even the primary level processing and thereby it reduces the producer’s share in consumer’s rupee. The cointegration analysis using Johansen Cointegration method revealed that the liberalisation policies and further free trade agreements have resulted in the transmission of price signals between domestic and international edible oil markets and it led to the integration of these markets during the post-liberalisation period. The result of Vector Error Correction Model (VECM) also depicted that changes in the international prices of edible oils would cause changes in price in the domestic coconut oil market in the long-run. High wage rate, labour shortage and incidence of pest and diseases were the major production constraints faced by the farmers. Inclusion of agricultural operations also under MGNREGA has been suggested by farmers as an option for bringing down the cost of cultivation. Shortage of skilled labours can be lessened through the adoption of programmes like Friends of Coconut Tree (FoCT). The problems related to pest and disease attacks can be addressed by developing resistant and hybrid varieties and better plant protection measures. Price fluctuation, high transportation cost, inadequate storage and processing facilities were the major marketing constraints faced by the farmers. Long-term policies for the price stabilization of coconut and other coconut products are inevitable to reduce the price fluctuation. The government should continue the procurement operation through Krishi Bhavans as it is found to be beneficial for the farmers. Shortage of raw nuts, lack of exclusive market for coconut and high domestic price were the major constraints reported by the domestic traders and upcountry traders. The recent surge in the domestic price could be attributed mainly to the short supply coupled with high domestic and industrial demand. Shortage of raw nut due to lower production, productivity and pests and diseases needs to be addressed seriously. In the era of trade liberalisation and FTAs, the interests of farmers also need to be safeguarded while concentrating on trade opportunities. Given the present trade scenario, the coconut sector in Kerala needs strong support from the government to revive and retrieve its premier role performed in the past.ThesisItem Open Access Investigations on yellowing of black pepper (piper nigrum L.)(Department of Plantation Crops and Spices, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2019) Maddirala Surendra, Babu; KAU; Sujatha, V SBlack pepper, popularly known as King of Spices or Black gold is one of the important and earliest known spices produced and exported from India. After foot rot disease, the major constraint in black pepper cultivation is the incidence of yellowing, leading to decline in production year after year. Yellowing is reported to be caused by many abiotic and biotic factors. Symptomatological studies on yellowing showed that per cent severity of yellowing was significantly higher during October-November and was on par during summer. During July-August, yellowing was significantly low. There was no definite pattern in the development and spread of the disease. In case of mild yellowing, there was recovery during July-August. Yellowing gradually increased and severely affected plants failed to recover. There was no flushing or flowering in plants. Such plants died in 2-3 years. All varieties studied were found to be susceptible to yellowing. Yellowing was observed either at the top of pepper column or (and) the bottom of the column. Sometimes yellowing appeared in a group of leaves together. In some aged plants older leaves at terminal portion of plant were yellow. In some leaves the base of lamina near petiole was yellow. This yellowing faded to tip of lamina and margins. Yield and yield contributing characters in healthy, apparently healthy and yellowing affected black pepper plants showed that all the characters of healthy plants showed a higher positive value compared to yellowing affected plants. In the case of yield per plant, there was significant reduction in yield in yellowing affected plants compared to healthy in all varieties except Vijay. In the study on rhizosphere soil nutrient status there was no apparent role of soil pH, OC, N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S, Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu and B in causing yellowing in the experimental plots in the present study. All the nutrient elements were in the optimum or high range. There was no significant difference among yellowing affected, apparently healthy and healthy plants in case of N and S where DRIS norms were not available. Among the rhizosphere soil parameters, pH, EC and organic carbon were significantly and positively correlated with yellowing. There was no significant correlation of N, P, Mg, S, Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu and B content of rhizosphere soil with yellowing in black pepper. K, Ca and Al content of rhizosphere soils showed significant negative correlation with yellowing. Analysis of nutrient status in the plant tissues of yellowing affected, apparently healthy and healthy plants based on DRIS norms suggested by Hamza et al. (2007) indicated that there was deficiency of N in the yellowing affected plants, K content and S content was also low in yellowing affected plants, all other nutrients were not deficient in the yellowing affected plants. Study on soil micro flora (cfu g-1) showed that mean value of fungal population was significantly highest (18.78 ×10 3cfu g-1) in rhizosphere soils of healthy plants compared to apparently healthy and yellowing affected plants. Healthy plants showed significantly low (27.55 ×10 3cfu g-1) population count of actinomycetes in the rhizosphere soil, whereas apparently healthy and yellowing affected plants were statistically on par. Yellowing affected plants showed significantly highest population count of bacteria (25.53 ×10 8cfu g-1) followed by apparently healthy. Healthy plants showed significantly lowest bacterial population. No soil borne pathogens including Phytophthora, Rhizoctonia or Fusarium was found associated with yellowing Nematode population in the rhizosphere soils of healthy plants was significantly lowest compared to apparently healthy and yellowing affected plants. Yellowing affected plants showed significantly highest population of Meloidogyne incognita, Radopholus similis, Pratylenchus sp, Helicotylenchus sp, Dorylaimid sp, and Trophotylenchulus sp, in the rhizosphere soil when compared with apparently healthy and healthy plants. In case of root, number of galls on the roots was significantly highest in yellowing affected plants. Considering different categories of nematodes, Meloidogyne incognita followed by Radopholus similis were predominant in the roots of yellowing affected plants. In roots as well as rhizospere soil, significantly highest population of nematodes was observed during October – November followed by February – March. Examination of roots of experimental plants and rhizosphere soil did not show the presence of root mealy bugs or any other insect, which can cause damage to root or yellowing in the plant. There was significant positive correlation of yellowing with maximum temperature. However minimum temperature showed significant negative correlation with yellowing. Relative humidity and rainfall also were significantly and negatively correlated with yellowing. A definite association of plant parasitic nematodes was seen in the plants as well as rhizosphere soils of yellowing affected plants in the present study. Meloidogyne incognita followed by Radopholous similis population was significantly highest in yellowing affected plants indicating their role clearly in causing yellowing. In the present study on the analysis of different factors like soil nutrients, plant pathogenic micro-organisms, soil borne insects, nematodes etc, in causing yellowing gives a clear indication of role of nematodes in causing yellowing in black pepper in the experimental plot in Thrissur district. Even though the nutrient status in the rhizosphere soil of experimental plants was satisfactory, absorption of nutrients was low due to damage of roots caused by nematodes. There was deficiency of nitrogen and low potassium and sulphur levels in the leaves of yellowing affected plants. The yellowing expressed must be due to multiple factors and combined effect of multiple nutrient deficiencies in plant tissue and damage due to nematodesThesisItem Open Access Performance analysis of medicinal kaempferia species(Department of Plantation Crops and Spices, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2019) Akoijam Ranjita, Devi; KAU; Mini Raj, NThe medicinal Kaempferia species are a good source of valuable bioactive compounds. Kaempferia rotunda is widely used in the ancient systems of medicine in India and Indonesia. Kaempferia parviflora, popularly known as black ginger or Thai ginseng, has potential for great exploitation on commercial basis. Rhizomes of K. parviflora are used as aphrodisiac in traditional medicine in Thailand. The present study was undertaken at Department of Plantation crops and Spices, Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur to evaluate the medicinal Kaempferia species in terms of morphology, anatomy, floral biology, yield, medicinal as well as pharmacological properties. A total of 18 genotypes belonging to three different species of Kaempferia formed the material for the study. Kaempferia galanga was taken as a reference species. The morphological evaluation was done consecutively for two years (2017-18 and 2018-19) based on qualitative and quantitative parameters. In K. rotunda, there was not much variation in qualitative parameters while the quantitative parameters exhibited tremendous variation among the 13 genotypes evaluated. The fresh rhizome yield ranged from 15.21 to 52.44 g/plant and dry yield of rhizome ranged from 5.00 to 17.73 g/plant. The Manipur collection MCR-6 performed best with the highest fresh as well as dry rhizome yield of 52.44 g and 17.73 g respectively followed by KCR-5 from Kerala. In K. parviflora also, the qualitative parameters did not show much variation whereas the quantitative characters exhibited significant variation among the genotypes. Significantly highest (114.60 g) fresh weight of rhizome was recorded by the genotype KCP-1. The Thailand collection KCP-1 was the best performer followed by BSI-1 from Shillong. The two genotypes of K. galanga evaluated in the study exhibited morphological variation in certain characters, however no significant variation was noticed for rhizome yield. The flowering was observed from May to November in K. parviflora, March to April in K. rotunda and June to July in K. galanga. In the floral biology studies, variation was noticed in floral parts including the pollen grains of the three species with respect to size and shape. The flowers were bisexual, complete, trimerous and zygomorphic in all the species. There were on an average 14.2 number of flowers per inflorescence in K. parviflora, 8.9 flowers in K. rotunda and 5.6 flowers per inflorescence in K. galanga. The time of anthesis was 5.00 am to 7.15 am in K. parviflora, 4.00 to 5.00 am in K. rotunda and in case of K. galanga, peak anthesis time was 4.00 to 5.00 am. The stigma was receptive upto eight hours after the anthesis in K. parviflora whereas K. rotunda and K. galanga remained receptive for 24 hours and nine hours respectively after anthesis. In the in vivo pollen germination studies, pollen germination was noticed only in K. parviflora and K. galanga. The seed set was observed only in K. parviflora. The vivipary was observed in K. parviflora and recalcitrance of the seed was confirmed, thus proving its viviparous nature. The viviparous plants were compared with rhizome borne plants. The number of leaves and tillers were more in viviparous plants when compared with normal plants but they took two years for appreciable yield. However, rhizome yield of viviparous plant was only 1/3rd of that in normal plants. In the anatomical studies, all the three species had collateral and closed type of vascular bundles in transverse section of leaves. The oil globules were present in the leaf lamina of K. galanga. Calcium oxalate crystals were present in the leaf epidermis of K. rotunda and leaf lamina in K. parviflora. Oil globules were abundant in the rhizome of K. rotunda and K. parviflora. Starch granules in rhizome and root tuber were concentrated near endodermal layer in all the species. The flavonoid vacuoles were abundantly present in the rhizome section of K. parviflora. In the biochemical studies, the volatile oil content in K. rotunda rhizome ranged from 0.057 to 3.17 per cent and oleoresin content was to the tune of 0.60 to 3.17 per cent. In K. parviflora, volatile oil content was negligible; oleoresin content ranged 2.03 to 4.17 per cent. The content of starch, total sugars and flavonoids were high in K. parviflora whereas total free amino acid content was high in K. rotunda rhizome. The profiling of volatile oil of K. rotunda by GCMSMS detected 22 compounds, that of K. parviflora indicated 34 compounds and in K. galanga there were 27 compounds. The profiling of ethanolic extract of K. rotunda rhizome by GCMS showed the presence of 18 compounds and that of K. parviflora, eight compounds. The ethanolic extract of rhizome of K. rotunda and K. parviflora were subjected to detailed in vitro as well as in vivo pharmacological studies at the Dept. of Pharmacology and Toxicology, KVASU, Mannuthy. The in vivo acute toxicity and immunomodulatory study was carried out in Swiss albino mice using cyclophosphamide as immunosuppressive agent. No acute toxicity was noticed in the ethanolic extract of both K. rotunda and K. parviflora. Both the species significantly increased the body weight, total leukocyte count, serum protein and decreased neutrophil count in normal as well as immunosuppressed animals. A significant stimulation of humoral and cellular immune response was indicated by increase in antibody titre, bone marrow cellularity and DTH reaction. Histopathology of spleen confirmed the high immunomodulatory effect of K. parviflora and moderate immunomodulatory activity of K. rotunda. In the DPPH assay, K. rotunda exhibited high antioxidant activity (IC50 131.15 μg/ml) while K. parviflora showed lower activity (IC50 198.68±7.62 μg/ml). Ethanolic rhizome extract of both the species exhibited anticancer property in breast cancer cell lines. Both K. rotunda and K. parviflora showed cytotoxicity against MDA MB231 and MCF-7 cell lines. IC50 for K. rotunda was 167.1±5.60 and 194.8±8.97 respectively for MCF-7 and MDA MB231 cell lines while for K. parviflora it was 143.03±2.70 and 126.35±2.53 respectively. The ethanolic extract of K. rotunda and K. parviflora exhibited appreciable antimicrobial activity on E. coli (11.13±0.16 mm, 12.32±0.12 mm), S. enterica (11.47±0.29 mm, 13.8±0.16 mm) and P. aeruginosa (11.52±0.38 mm, 11.17±0.31 mm) and showed potent activity on S. aureus (14.18±0.32 mm, 15.48±0.23 mm).
