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Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur
The history of agricultural education in Kerala can be traced back to the year 1896 when a scheme was evolved in the erstwhile Travancore State to train a few young men in scientific agriculture at the Demonstration Farm, Karamana, Thiruvananthapuram, presently, the Cropping Systems Research Centre under Kerala Agricultural University. Agriculture was introduced as an optional subject in the middle school classes in the State in 1922 when an Agricultural Middle School was started at Aluva, Ernakulam District. The popularity and usefulness of this school led to the starting of similar institutions at Kottarakkara and Konni in 1928 and 1931 respectively.
Agriculture was later introduced as an optional subject for Intermediate Course in 1953. In 1955, the erstwhile Government of Travancore-Cochin started the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, Thiruvananthapuram and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences at Mannuthy, Thrissur for imparting higher education in agricultural and veterinary sciences, respectively. These institutions were brought under the direct administrative control of the Department of Agriculture and the Department of Animal Husbandry, respectively. With the formation of Kerala State in 1956, these two colleges were affiliated to the University of Kerala. The post-graduate programmes leading to M.Sc. (Ag), M.V.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees were started in 1961, 1962 and 1965 respectively.
On the recommendation of the Second National Education Commission (1964-66) headed by Dr. D.S. Kothari, the then Chairman of the University Grants Commission, one Agricultural University in each State was established. The State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) were established in India as an integral part of the National Agricultural Research System to give the much needed impetus to Agriculture Education and Research in the Country. As a result the Kerala Agricultural University (KAU) was established on 24th February 1971 by virtue of the Act 33 of 1971 and started functioning on 1st February 1972. The Kerala Agricultural University is the 15th in the series of the SAUs.
In accordance with the provisions of KAU Act of 1971, the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, were brought under the Kerala Agricultural University. In addition, twenty one agricultural and animal husbandry research stations were also transferred to the KAU for taking up research and extension programmes on various crops, animals, birds, etc.
During 2011, Kerala Agricultural University was trifurcated into Kerala Veterinary and Animal Sciences University (KVASU), Kerala University of Fisheries and Ocean Studies (KUFOS) and Kerala Agricultural University (KAU).
Now the University has seven colleges (four Agriculture, one Agricultural Engineering, one Forestry, one Co-operation Banking & Management), six RARSs, seven KVKs, 15 Research Stations and 16 Research and Extension Units under the faculties of Agriculture, Agricultural Engineering and Forestry. In addition, one Academy on Climate Change Adaptation and one Institute of Agricultural Technology offering M.Sc. (Integrated) Climate Change Adaptation and Diploma in Agricultural Sciences respectively are also functioning in Kerala Agricultural University.
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ThesisItem Open Access Groundwater irrigation: management, adaptation and economic costs under declining resource conditions(Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2017) Seenath Peedikakandi; KAU; Indira Devi, PGroundwater is the major source of domestic use and irrigation in Kerala, accounting for 39 per cent of net irrigated area. Irrigated agriculture in the state shows continuous increase over years. At the same time Kerala is reported as third among the states with highest depletion of groundwater. This situation poses challenges in agricultural production. The study ‘Groundwater irrigation: Management, adaptation and economic costs under declining resource conditions’ was undertaken, in this background. The objectives of the study were to analyse the extent of decline in groundwater resources and farmers’ understanding of the same, to analyse the extraction practices, management and economic efficiency of groundwater irrigation and coping (short term) and adaptation (long term) strategies towards management of groundwater decline and the economic cost of adaptation strategies. The study was conducted in Palakkad district of Kerala. Based on the stage of ground water development, three Block Panchayats viz., Chittur (over exploited), Malampuzha (critical) and Pattambi (semi-critical) were selected for the study. 50 Open Well (OW) irrigated and 50 Bore Well (BW) irrigated farms from each BP were randomly selected from the Grama Panchayats (GPs) where observational wells of the GWD (Ground Water Department- Kerala) are situated. Primary data was collected from the sample farms through field visits using pre-tested structured interview schedule and through direct observation. PRA (Participatory Rural Appraisal) was also conducted in each BP to draw the time line of changes in ground water status and social perceptions. Secondary data on monthly water levels of Groundwater Monitoring Wells (GMWs) maintained by GWD (Palakkad),rainfall data and published reports were used for the study. Statistical tools like descriptive analysis, regression and Stochastic Frontier Function were employed for analysis of the data. In most of the GMWs in the study area, the Water Level from Ground (WLG) has been declining over the years. The trend was more predominant during early summer (Dec.–Jan.) in Chittur and Malampuzha and in late summer in Pattambi BP. Regression analysis showed that WLG was significantly influenced by one year lagged rainfall in Chittur and current year rainfall in Malampuzha and Pattambi. The average well density was 205/km2 with highest in Pattambi. Density of defunct wells was highest (45/km2) and the average functional age of bore wells was lowest (7 years) in Chittur. The depth of well was highest in Chittur where bore well depth (136 mbgl- meters below ground level) was double than that of Pattambi. Coconut based cropping system was prevalent in most of the farms except in Malampuzha where paddy was the major crop. Flood, basin and sprinkler irrigations were found to be more common in Malampuzha and Pattambi BPs, while drip irrigation was prevalent in Chittur. Cost of irrigation in Chittur was about Rs. 29,000/ha/year which accounted for 37 per cent of cost of cultivation. Annual net return per ha. of farm was lowest (Rs. 17,640/-) in Chittur due to low cropping intensity. Stochastic Frontier Analysis indicated that mean economic efficiency was high (99.9%) in Chittur as most of the farms were functioning along the cost frontier. The variability among the farms in Chittur was low. Respondents opined that groundwater is declining over the years irrespective of the region. It has been so, for more than a decade in Chittur affecting socio-economic well-being of farmers. They attributed intensive extraction through bore wells and low rainfall as the major reasons for the decline. Farm level adaptations to water scarcity are classified under ‘supply management’ (methods that facilitated increase in quantity of water available for irrigation) and ‘demand management’ (methods that tried to use the water effectively through minimizing the use) strategies. The supply management strategies were mainly exploitative in nature which included digging new bore well (52-58%), improved draft technology with compressor pumps (58%), taking pits for water conservation (7%), coconut husk burial (12%), coconut leaf mulching (18%) and dependence on water markets (8%). Digging new bore well was the most common supply management strategy in Chittur which is highly capital intensive. The average cost amounted to Rs. 8,520/ha/year. Intensive extraction was done by excessive use of subsidized electricity. Adoption of drip irrigation (60%) was the most widely practiced demand management strategy which cost about Rs. 22,000/ha/year. Cropping pattern change from paddy and sugarcane to coconut was also observed. About 18 per cent of the land area in Chittur was kept fallow due to water scarcity. The study brings out results that suggest policy interventions in regulating bore well digging and revisiting the power subsidy system. In Chittur area, where the rainfall is scanty, extension of the Right Bank Canal of the Chittur River irrigation project is the most feasible solution. Taking up on-farm research trials in the area to suggest efficient farming systems and practices may also be done. Simultaneously water resource conservation strategies are to be popularized through awareness creation, capacity building programmes and subsidy support.ThesisItem Open Access Supply chain analysis of marine fish marketing system in Kerala(Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2017) Jeyanthi, P; KAU; Jesy Thomas, KFisheries is a major allied sector of agriculture contributing about 0.8 per cent to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and 5.15 per cent to agricultural GDP in India. Marine fisheries supports around 10 million people providing livelihood and employment directly or indirectly. Fish also provides more than one billion people living below the poverty line with most of their daily animal protein requirement globally. Kerala is a state known for its fish consumption which is more than four times the national average. However, the marine domestic fish marketing system faces several challenges in the process of distributing fish from the producer to the consumer. The study was conducted in Kerala state, which is the fourth largest fish producer in the country, and covered coastal and land locked (non-coastal) regions. The objectives of the study were to identify the supply chain of selected fish species, to assess the structure and performance of domestic fish markets, to examine the market integration and price transmission among the markets and to assess the consumer perception and suggest policy guidelines for improved fish marketing in Kerala. Two coastal districts viz., Ernakulam (E) and Kollam (K) and two land locked districts, Idukki (I) and Pathanamthitta (P) were selected and data was collected using simple random sampling from various marketing functionaries (producers, wholesalers, retailers and consumers). Since the species composition of marine fish landings is varied, the study focused on four high value (seer fish, shrimp, pomfret and tuna) and four low value but commonly consumed fish species (sardine, mackerel, anchovies, threadfin bream). Supply chain of the selected fish species was identified using the framework of Feller et al, 2006. Market performance of producers, wholesalers and retailers were assessed using Data Envelopment Analysis. The co-integration test was used to analyses the market integration of selected market pairs. Conjoint analysis was used to determine the attributes responsible for their fish purchasing behaviour. The constraints faced by the market functionaries were ranked using Rank Based Quotient. The generic supply chain of fish identified involved the auctioneer, wholesaler, retailers, secondary retailers, between the producer and the consumer. This is almost similar to the supply chain of other perishable like fruits, vegetables and flowers. The supply chain for sardine, tuna and thread fin bream also involved extra nodes in their supply chain due to industry specific demands like feed and other specialized products. The market structure of domestic fish markets was not efficient. The main reason being lack of infrastructure such as cold storage, well planned display and assemblage platforms, potable water and weighing balance. Market performance of producers was measured at the five landing centres in Ernakulam and Kollam and it was observed that only one market was efficient in each of the districts. It was revealed that the nature of inefficiency was due to scale rather than technology. In both Ernakulam and Kollam, only one wholesale market each was efficient and all other markets showed high technical efficiency i.e., above 0.80. In both wholesale and retail markets, the technical efficiency was relatively low in Idukki and Pathanamthitta with it being least in Idukki. It was revealed that the markets in the coastal regions showed relatively high technical efficiency than the land locked regions because of the higher volumes handled in the markets due to proximity with the landing centres, viz, the primary production centres, which is not so easily accessible to the land locked districts. Among wholesale markets, one market pair in Ernakulam, one in Idukki and one in Pathanamthitta showed co-integration and among retail one each in Ernkulam and Pathanamthitta showed co-integration. This indicates that in these markets there is a possibility of long run equilibrium in prices. The existence of low short run market integration (SRMI) at both wholesale as well as retail market levels was observed among the co-integrated market pairs. Consumer preference was for fresh fish in all the four districts studied in cleaned and cut form from retailers, wholesalers or wholesaler-cum-retailer. Sardine was the most preferred species in both coastal and landlocked regions of Kerala with more than 75 and 72 per cent of respondents, respectively, consuming it daily. The relative importance of attributes that consumer in Ernakulam and Kollam looked at while purchasing fish was fish species in fresh form and income. In Idukki and Pathanamthitta, availability and income were the relatively important attributes. Based on the pooled response of market functionaries in the selected districts the domination of middlemen was the major constraint for producers, wholesalers and retailers. Safety and quality of fish was the major constraint of consumers. The studies on efficiency of fish supply chain in line with the changing consumer preference are the future line of work towards sustainable fisheries development.ThesisItem Open Access Collection and evaluation of marigold (Tagetes spp.) genotypes for humid tropics(Department of Pomology and Floriculture, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2017) Shajma Nafeesa, Basheer; KAU; Sabina George, TThe present study entitled ‘Collection and evaluation of marigold (Tagetes spp.) genotypes for humid tropics was conducted in the Department of Pomology and Floriculture, College of Agriculture, Vellayani during 2012-2015, with an objective to collect and evaluate the genotypes of Tagetes spp. for growth, yield of fresh flowers and floral attributes in two planting seasons, ie, October and May planting and to select promising genotypes for loose flower production and for landscaping. The experimental material consisted of twenty five genotypes of Tagetes erecta and five genoytpes of Tagetes patula. These were evaluated in the field in a randomized block design with three replications. Significant differences were observed among the genotypes for plant growth characters, foliage characters, flowering and yield characters and flower characters in both planting seasons. In both October and May plantings, TEG 5 and TEG 6 maintained greater plant height and the lowest plant height were found to be in TPG 17 and TPG 18. The maximum plant spread was recorded in TEG 5 in October planting and in TPG 21 in May planting. The highest number of primary branches per plant was recorded in TEG 6 followed by TEG 5 in October planting and in TEG 16 followed by TEG 5 and TEG 8 in May planting. The highest number of secondary branches was recorded by TEG 14 in October planting and by TPG 21 in May planting. Among flowering and yield characters, in October planting, the lowest number of days to flowering was recorded in Tagetes patula genotypes, TPG 19, TPG 18 and TPG 21 (33.33 days) and the lowest number of days to flower opening in TPG 21 and TPG 17 (45.33 days). In May planting, the Tagetes erecta genotype TEG 11 recorded the lowest number of days to flower initiation (49.00) and flower opening (68.33). TEG 29 recorded the longest flowering duration in both October and May planting. The maximum number of flowers per plant and flower yield per plant was observed in TEG 16 in October planting. In May planting, TPG 18 followed by TEG 16 recorded the maximum number of flowers. The genotype TEG 16 also recorded the highest flower yield per plant in May planting and the highest number of viable seeds per plant in both the seasons. TEG 11 recorded higher values for fresh weight of flower in both the seasons of investigation. In October planting and May planting, the highest value for petal meal per kg of fresh flowers was recorded in TEG 29 and the maximum petal meal per ha was recorded in TEG 5 in October planting and in TEG 29 in May planting. The highest total carotenoid content was recorded by TEG 3 followed by TEG 2 in both the seasons. Among the flower characters, TEG 5 the highest number of ligulate floret whorls and TEG 11 recorded the highest value for length of floret, flower diameter, girth of floral receptacle in both the seasons. Significantly higher flower stalk length was observed for TEG 3 and the longest vase life was recorded by TEG 7 in both the seasons of investigation. Genetic variability studies showed that genotypic coefficient of variation (GCV) was higher than phenotypic coefficient of variation (PCV) for all the characters. High GCV and PCV and high heritability was observed for all the characters studied. Correlation studies revealed a highly significant positive correlation of flower yield with number of flowers per plant, plant spread, fresh weight of flowers, length of floret, crop duration and number of secondary branches per plant. Path analysis studies showed that fresh weight of flowers had the highest direct positive effect on flower yield per plant followed by number of flowers per plant and plant height. Cluster analysis based on D2 values divided the thirty genotypes of marigold into six clusters with Cluster V recording the maximum number of genotypes and Cluster I, the minimum number of genotypes.Seasonal evaluation of the genotypes showed that May planting was found to be better than October planting in terms of plant growth characters, flower yield and flower characteristics. Earlier initiation of flowering was however observed in October planting in all the genotypes. The present study revealed that, the Tagetes erecta genotypes TEG 5, TEG 29, TEG 25, TEG 30, TEG 22, TEG 11 and TEG 7 may be suitable for commercial loose flower production. The genotype TEG 16 with semiupright habit may be suited for plant compactness and flower production. The genotypes TEG 3 and TEG 2, with higher carotenoid content may be suitable for pigment extraction. The Tagetes patula genotypes, TPG 21 and TPG 18 with dwarf spreading plant habit and the Tagetes erecta genotype TEG 11 with semiupright plant habit may be suitable as flowering ground covers in landscaping. The wide range of genetic variability available in marigold genotypes can be utilized for further crop improvement programmes through direct selection and hybridization.ThesisItem Open Access Management of banana pseudostem weevil, Odoiporus longicollis (Olivier), using safe chemicals and bio-rational methods(Department of Agricultural Entomology, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2017) Sivakumar, T; KAU; Jiji, TA study on ‘Management of banana pseudostem weevil, Odoiporus longicollis (Olivier), using safe chemicals and bio-rational methods’ was conducted at the College of Agriculture, Vellayani and in farmer’s field during 2012-2015. The main objective was to evolve strategies for managing the pest using safe chemicals and bio-rational methods. The study involved documentation of the pest status and farmers’ management practices, evaluation of the efficacy of different insecticides, botanicals and bio-agents under laboratory and field conditions and determination of harvest time insecticide residues in edible parts. Status of pests in banana was documented from Alappuzha, Pathanamthitta, Kollam and Thiruvananthapuram districts during 2013. O. longicollis incidence in banana cv. Nendran varied from 5.36 per cent in Kollam to 7.64 per cent in Pathanamthitta. Erionota sp., Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel), Polytus mellerborgi (Boheman), Coccus hesperidum L. were observed as the emerging pests from the area. Pest management practices adopted by banana farmers, documented from the above districts, revealed the use of sixteen types of pesticides, including organic preparations. No specific parasite or predator was recorded from field except earwigs and red ants. Efficacy of insecticides, botanicals and bio-agents for the management of O. longicollis was evaluated under laboratory conditions. Thiamethoxam (0.01%), emamectin benzoate (0.002%) and cartap hydrochloride (0.1%) caused 100 per cent mortality of adults and grubs of the pest within 36 h after treatment. Among the botanicals, cassava leaf distillate based formulation, ‘Nanma’ (5%) caused 36.67 per cent mortality of adults and grubs, whereas neem soap caused 36.67 and 16.67 per cent mortality of adults and grubs, respectively. Among the bio agents tested, Metarhizium majus Bisch, Rehner and Humber (ICAR-CPCRI) 2% caused 80 per cent mortality of grubs on the seventh day of inoculation. Compatibility of insecticides, fungicides and botanicals with M. majus was tested using poisoned media technique. The fungicides viz., propiconazole (0.1%), tebuconazole (0.1%), mancozeb (0.3%) and carbendazim (0.1%) resulted in total growth inhibition of M. majus, while thiamethoxam (0.01% and 0.03%), cartap hydrochloride (0.05%) and neem soap (1.0%) were found compatible. Application methods of insecticides, botanicals and bio-agents were standardised through field experiment at the Instructional Farm, College of Agriculture, Vellayani during 2013-2014. Among the application methods, leaf axil filling (LAF) and injection of thiamethoxam (0.01% and 0.03%) recorded a yield of 10.98 and 10.88 kg plant-1, respectively. In the case of biopesticides, the highest yield (6.43 kg plant-1) was recorded with swabbing + LAF application of M. majus (20g l-1), whereas among botanicals, spraying +LAF gave the highest yield (8.8 kg plant-1) for neem soap (1.0%) application. Prophylactic and curative methods for the management of the pest, using thiamethoxam, neem soap, cassava leaf based preparation and M. majus, were tested in farmer’s field at Konni, Pathanamthitta district during 2014-2015. In prophylactic method thiamethoxam injection (0.03%) at 5th and 6th months after planting recorded an yield of 10.67 kg plant-1, followed by thiamethoxam (0.01%) leaf axil filling (10.32 kg plant-1) at 5th and 6th months after planting. Significantly higher value for BC ratio (2.44) was recorded for thiamethoxam (0.03%) injection. The BC ratio was 2.33 for thiamethoxam (0.01%) leaf axil filling. Application of M. majus (2%) at five months after planting, followed by thiamethoxam LAF (0.01%) at 6th month after planting yielded 8.82 kg plant-1. In curative method, plant survival was the highest (80 per cent) for thiamethoxam injection (0.03%). However, a low BC ratio of 0.86 was observed. Thiamethoxam injection (0.03%) and leaf axil filling (0.01%) were on par with chlorpyrifos (0.03%), as curative method. No detectable residue of thiamethoxam on any edible parts of the plant was observed at the time of harvest. To conclude, ‘Nendran’ was found to be the most susceptible banana cultivar to O. longicollis. Thiamethoxam at 0.01 per cent and 0.03 per cent were compatible with the entomopathogen, M. majus. Prophylactic method using thiamethoxam injection @ 0.03% and leaf axil filling @ 0.01%, both at five and six months after planting, were found effective, eco friendly and economical practice for O. longicollis management. The application of entomopathogenic fungi M. majus at five months after planting followed by thiamethoxam (0.03%) injection at six months after planting was also effective for managing the pest.ThesisItem Open Access Identification of graft transmissible resistant factors and development of si RNA mediated resistance in cassava against cassava mosaic geminivirus(Department of Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2017) Asha, B Nair; KAU; Umamaheswaran, KThe present study entitled ‘Identification of graft transmissible resistant factors and development of siRNA mediated resistance in Cassava against Cassava mosaic virus’ was carried out during the period 2012-2017 at the Department of Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture, Vellayani. The study was carried out with the objective of identification of transferability of resistance factor from resistant cassava, Sree Padmanabha to susceptible, Vellayani Hraswa by grafting and to develop siRNA mediated technology for the development of cassava plant resistant to Cassava mosaic geminivirus. Grafting experiments were conducted using resistant Sree Padmanabha as root stock and susceptible Vellayani Hraswa as scion. Symptoms like leaf mosaic, chlorotic spots, reduction in leaflet size and stunting of plants were noticed in susceptible variety. Virus concentration was found to be less in grafted plants. Grafting experiments showed the expression of an extra protein by SDS-PAGE and Coomassie staining in grafted plants which is around 38 kDa. Molecular weight of the new protein revealed the presence of extracellular protein in grafted samples. The extra proteins found in the grafted plants are assumed to be transferred from Sree Padmanabha to Vellayani Hraswa by the process of grafting. The study also involved the development of an intron hairpin RNA vector against replicase gene of SriLankan cassava mosaic virus and introduction of this construct into embryogenic cells via Agrobacterium mediated transformation. A protocol for somatic embryogenesis in cassava variety, Vellayani Hraswa was developed by using immature leaf lobes as explants. The young leaf lobes from tissue culture plantlets produced through meristem culture was used for embryogenic callus formation. Cremish white calli was initiated in Murashige and Skooge (MS) medium supplemented with picloram 12 mg L-1 in dark. For embryogenesis, the calli were transferred to MS medium supplemented with BA 2µM and NAA 1µM which resulted in the production of glassy elongated somatic embryos. The germinated cotyledonary embryos were then regenerated into plantlets by culturing in MS medium supplemented with BA 1mg L-1. Effort was taken to construct an intron hairpin RNA vector and the gene targeted for silencing was the replicase gene of SriLankan cassava mosaic virus (SLCMV). Total DNA was extracted from virus infected plants and the whole replicase gene was isolated using gene specific primers. Sequencing of the whole gene was done. BLAST analysis showed 98% similarity to replicase gene of various isolates of SLCMV. The sequence was then subjected to miRNA target prediction and restriction mapping to select suitable region for the construct. Based on this information, a fragment of 397 bp towards the 5’ end was amplified by designing a set of primers with anchored restriction sites. The primers anchored with Xho and Kpn 1sites were used for the amplification of sense strand and the primers anchored with Xba and Cla 1sites were used for amplification of antisense strand. Selected region was amplified to form sense and anti-sense fragments and cloned to pTZ57R/T cloning vector. Inserts were then released from pTZ57R/T using the corresponding restriction enzymes. The sense and anti-sense fragments were then integrated in the primary vector pHANNIBAL on either side of the pdk intron which facilitated the formation of intron hairpin RNA construct. The intron hairpin RNA construct in pHANNIBAL contained CaMV35S promoter, sense strand, pdk intron, antisense strand and OCS terminator in the order with Not 1 restriction sites. After confirmation of integration by restriction digestion, the Not1 fragment with sense and anti-sense strand were released from pHANNIBAL and ligated to the digested Not1 site in the lacZ gene of binary vector pART27 containing antibiotic resistant marker nptII and spec. the binary vector was confirmed for the presence of insert by transferring to DH5α cells and colony selection by blue white screening. Plasmid DNA isolated from transformed colonies grown on Luria agar medium supplemented with 100 mg L -1 spectinomycin were confirmed for the presence of insert. After confirmation of insert in the binary vector, it was transformed to Agrobacterium tumefaciens strain LBA4404 via freeze thaw method. Transformed colonies were selected on kanamycin selection medium at 100 mg L -1 and confirmed for the presence of binary vector and ihpRNA insert using nptII primers and primer for sense and antisense strands by PCR reaction. Cotyledons excised from the somatic embryos were transformed with LBA4404 having pART 27 by co-cultivation and the transformed embryos were selected with antibiotic pressure (Kanamycin 100 mg L-1). DNA was isolated from the transformed somatic embryos and confirmed for the presence of insert using forward primer of sense fragment and reverse primer of antisense fragments. Transformed embryos were subjected to regeneration.ThesisItem Open Access Characterization and evaluation of on-farm liquid organic manures on soil health and crop nutrition(Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2017) Sreya, U Parvathi; KAU; Ushakumari, KThe experiment entitled “Characterization and evaluation of on-farm liquid organic manures on soil health and crop nutrition” was undertaken at College of Agriculture, Vellayani during 2014-2017.The study was envisaged to characterize the on-farm liquid organic manures viz., cow urine, panchagavya, fish amino acid, vermiwash and jeevamrutha, to monitor the nutrient release pattern under laboratory conditions and to evaluate the efficacy of soil and foliar applications of these liquid manures on soil health and crop nutrition using bhindi as test crop. The study consisted of three parts. The first part comprised the preparation and characterization of above said on-farm liquid organic manures. These manures were prepared as per standard procedures and characterization study was conducted to determine the physical, chemical, biological and biochemical properties. Physical properties viz., colour and odour of different on-farm liquid organic manures were recorded. Among the liquid organic manures studied, fish amino acid and panchagavya showed acidic pH and other three liquid organic manures viz., cow urine, jeevamrutha and vermiwash recorded neutral pH. Regarding EC, jeevamrutha recorded the lowest value (1.53 dSm-1).The highest OC content (39.96%) was recorded by fish amino acid followed by panchagavya. Among the major nutrients, the highest N content (0.45%) was found in panchgavya followed by fish amino acid. The highest P content was recorded by FAA (0.41%). Maximum K content (0.17%) was recorded in cow urine followed by panchagavya, vermiwash and jeevamrutha. S content of all the liquid organic manures were higher compared to Ca and Mg content. The highest contents of Ca, Mg and S were recorded by fish amino acid. The Fe content (39.92mg L-1) was highest in jeevamrutha and the lowest in fish amino acid. Cow urine was found to be rich in Mn (0.400 mg L-1) and Cu (21.21 mg L-1).The maximum zinc content (2.00 mg L-1), IAA (6.00μg ml-1) and GA (35.00μg ml-1) were found in fish amino acid. Panchagavya was rich in cytokinin (2.82 mg L-1) whereas, ascorbic acid content (37.50 mg 100g-1) was the highest in vermiwash. Fish amino acid was registered the highest enzyme activities, except for dehydrogenase activity which was found to be maximum in cow urine (371.27 μg of TPF g -1soil 24 h-1) followed by fish amino acid (336.98 μg of TPF g -1soil 24 h-1). The maximum population of bacteria was observed in vermiwash and fungal population was presented in all liquid organic manures except cow urine. The highest azotobacter population was observed in fish amino acid. K solubilizers were found to be the highest in vermiwash whereas E.coli, P solubilizers, azospirillum and Pseudomonas sp. were not detected in any of the above liquid organic manures. The second part of the experiment was laboratory incubation study to monitor the nutrient release pattern from soil treated with the on-farm liquid organic manures for a period of two months. The study consisted of 6 treatments which included soil alone and soil treated with 10 per cent dilution of all the liquid organic manures separately and all the treatments were maintained at 60 per cent moisture level. In general increased pH and EC values were observed in all the treatments received diluted liquid organic manures compared to control. Regarding the release of major, secondary and micronutrients, there was significant difference in available nutrient contents between treatments during the periods of incubation. Regarding the release of N and P during incubation study, soil along with FAA 10 per cent recorded the highest release pattern whereas soil along with cow urine 10 per cent recorded the highest K release throughout the incubation period. There was increased release of Ca in the treatments received liquid organic manures. The highest Mg release throughout the incubation period was registered by the treatment received cow urine 10 per cent. Available iron content was higher in T5 (soil 5 kg + jeevamrutha 10 %) compared to other treatments. A significant difference was found among treatments with respect to available Zn content. Initially (0th day of incubation), all the treatments were recorded higher values compared to values recorded on 7th ,15th ,30th , 45th and 60th days of incubation. There was increasing trends in the Cu content of soil from 0th day of incubation to 60th day of incubation except in the case of T3 (soil 5 kg + FAA 10 %). Treatment T1 (soil without treatments) recorded the lowest values for all nutrients throughout the incubation period. The third part of the experiment was to evaluate the efficacy of soil and foliar applications of on-farm liquid organic manures in a pot culture experiment using bhindi as test crop. The treatments included were 75 per cent N as enriched vermicompost along with diluted liquid organic manures separately as soil and foliar applications. Plant height, LAI, dry matter production, number of flowers, number of fruits per plant and total fruit yield were found to be the highest in T5 (75 % N as EVC + panchagavya 3 % foliar application). Chlorophyll a, b and total chlorophyll content were the highest in T10 (75 % N as EVC + jeevamrutha 10 % soil application). T1 (KAU PoP) recorded the highest average fruit weight. T4 (75 % N as EVC + FAA 5 % soil application). registered the highest crude protein content while crude fibre content was lowest in T7 (75 % N as EVC + cow urine 10 % foliar spray). Ascorbic acid content was the highest in T5 (75 % N as EVC + panchagavya 3 % foliar spray) and was on par with T7, T2,T9 and T11. The results of the post harvest analysis of soil revealed that pH, EC, organic carbon and labile carbon contents varied significantly among the treatments. The highest organic carbon content of soil was recorded by T4 (75 % N as EVC + FAA 3 % soil application) and T12 (75% N as EVC + vermiwash 10 % soil application). The maximum labile carbon was recorded by T8. T5 (75 % N as EVC + panchagavya 3 % foliar spray) was rich in available N. Soil enzyme activities were influenced by the application of liquid organic manures. The treatment T5 registered the highest plant uptake of major nutrients. The treatment T3 registered the highest plant uptake of secondary nutrients. The highest value of Fe and Zn uptake was noticed in T11.(75 % N as EVC + vermiwash 10 % foliar spray). The highest value of Cu uptake was noticed in T1 (KAU PoP). The highest value of Mn uptake was noticed in T3 (75 % N as EVC + FAA 5 % foliar spray) . The lowest plant uptake of all nutrients were recorded by T13 (Absolute control). Economics of cultivation of bhindi indicated that cost benefit ratio was found higher for treatment T5, 75 per cent N as EVC + panchagavya 3 per cent foliar application (2.83) followed by T7, 75 per cent N as EVC + cow urine 10 per cent foliar spray (2.09). From the above study, it was concluded that the recommended dose of inorganics (KAU PoP) can be substituted with combined application of enriched vermicompost (enriched with azolla 10 %) to get 75 per cent N and foliar application of 3 per cent panchagavya or soil application of 10 per cent cow urine or 5 per cent fish amino acid at 10 days intervals. Soil health, in terms of physical, chemical, biological and biochemical properties of soil was more enhanced in the treatments received soil application of liquid organic manures. Liquid organic manures viz., cow urine, panchagavya, jeevamrutha, fish amino acid and vermiwash were easily preparable in the farmers’ farm, biodegradable, less expensive, eco-friendly and non-hazardous for human health and environment. From the study it was found that above liquid organic manures were very good organic sources for organic farming and sustainable agriculture.ThesisItem Open Access Optimisation of process parameters for preparation of flavoured instant green tea(Department of Food and Agricultural Process Engineering, Kelappaji College of Agricultural Engineering and Technology, Tavanur, 2017) Sankalpa, K B; KAU; Santhi Mary, MathewTea is the second most popular drink in the world after water. Tea can be classified into three major categories: unfermented green tea, partially fermented oolong tea, and fermented black tea. Green tea contains more catechins, than black tea and oolong tea. So it is included in the group of beverages with functional properties. Green tea consumption helps in preventing cardiovascular diseases, cancer, diabetes and obesity. Nowadays, demand is increasing for instant tea, decaffeinated tea and flavoured tea. The use of instant tea powder will reduce the preparation time to a large extent and saves energy as well. Due to these reasons efforts were under taken for optimisation of process parameters for preparation of flavoured instant green tea. Production of flavoured instant green tea mainly includes three steps, extraction, flavour addition and drying. Extraction was performed and optimised conditions were 1:47 leaf-water ratio, 30 min extraction time and 52°C extraction temperature. Extract obtained with optimised condition was subjected to spray drying and optimised condition were 174°C inlet temperature, 2.7% MD and 671 ml.h-1 feed rate to produce instant green tea. Further flavouring was carried out with two spices (ginger and cardamom) and one herb (tulsi) of different concentration and spray dried at optimised spray drying condition. The best combination selected after sensory evaluation are G2 (4% ginger extract), C6 (3 g of cardamom with 30 min of soaking) and H3 (3:10 tulsi to green tea ratio, 30 min extraction time). The best samples were packed in PET, ALF and LDPE and kept for storage studies at room temperature. Predicted shelf-life period of instant flavoured green tea powder packaged in ALF, PET and LDPE based on moisture gain was found to be 210, 152 and 92 days, respectively. Among the six tested sorption models, the GAB model described the best fit to the experimental data with higher R2 value and lowest SSE and RMSE. The HPLC analysis for catechin fraction of instant flavoured green tea indicates that, flavour addition will not affect the green tea catechins. The heat utilization efficiency of spray dryer for spray drying of green tea extract under non adiabatic condition was 18.18% and under adiabatic condition was 89.4%. The total cost of production for 310 1 kg of instant green tea was Rs. 3590/-, ginger flavoured instant green tea was Rs. 3683/-, cardamom flavoured instant green tea was 4025/- and tulsi flavoured instant green tea was Rs. 3631/- and benefit cost ratio was 1.40:1, 1.63:1, 1.49:1 and 1.65:1, respectively.ThesisItem Open Access Molecular characterization of virus causing infectious chlorosis disease of banana(Department of Plant Pathology, College of Horticulture Vellanikkara, 2017) Ahamed Mujtaba, V; KAU; Anita Cherian, KThe experiment entitled “Nutrient management in strawberry (Fragaria x ananassa Duch.)” was undertaken at Regional Agricultural Research Station, Ambalavayal, Wayanad during the year 2016-17. Performance of strawberry variety Winter Dawn was evaluated under nine treatments and a control in the open field viz., FYM 10 t ha-1 + NPK 50:20:50 kg ha-1 (T1); FYM 10 t ha-1 + NPK 75:30:75 kg ha-1 (T2 ); FYM 10 t ha-1 + NPK 100:40:100 kg ha-1 (T3); FYM 20 t ha-1 + NPK 50:30:100 kg ha-1 (T4); FYM 20 t ha-1 + NPK 75:40:50 kg ha-1 (T5); FYM 20 t ha-1 + NPK 100:20:75 kg ha-1 (T6); FYM 30 t ha-1 + NPK 50:40:75 kg ha-1 (T7); FYM 30 t ha-1 + NPK 75:20:100 kg ha-1 (T8); FYM 30 t ha-1 + NPK 100:30:50 kg ha-1 (T9) and an absolute control (T10), without any nutrient application. All the treatments were on par and superior over the control (T10) in case of plant height. In case of plant spread, T2, T3, T5, T6, T7, T8 and T9 were on par and superior over the control while T1 and T4 were on par with each other but differs with other treatments. All the treatments except T2 were on par and superior over the control with respect to number of leaves per plant. Application of treatments had no significant effect on days to first flowering. In case of number of flowers and clusters per plant, T1, T2, T3, T5, T6, T7, T8 and T9 were on par and superior over the control while T4 was on par with the control (T10). Days to first harvest was minimum in T6, T7, T8 and T9 which were on par while all other treatments were on par with the control (T10).In case of number of fruits and yield per plant, T7 (FYM 30 t ha-1 + NPK 50:40:75 kg ha-1) and T8 (FYM 30 t ha-1 + NPK 75:20:100 kg ha-1) were on par and superior over other treatments including T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6 and T9 which were on par and superior over the control. Average fruit weight recorded under T3, T5, T6, T7, T8 and T9 were on par which was followed by T2 on par with T4 and T1. Days to final harvest was not found to be influenced by the application of different treatments. Biochemical characters of fruits viz., TSS, acidity and TSS/acidity ratio were not having any significant effect due to the application of treatments. In case of total sugars, T3, T7, T8 and T9 were having the highest content and were on par which was followed by T5 on par with T1, T2, T4, T6 and T10. The overall sensory score was highest in T7 followed by T8. Application of different treatments had no significant effect on the shelf life of strawberry fruits. N, P, K and Ca content in the plant were not significantly affected by any treatment while Mg content was found to be on par in all treatments and superior over the control. Soil analysis after the harvest of the crop revealed that the values for soil EC, available P, K, Mg and S were found to be elevated while soil pH, organic carbon and available Ca content were found to be at lower levels than the initial values before planting. It was concluded that among different nutrient combinations evaluated, T7 (FYM 30 t ha-1 + NPK 50:40:75 kg ha-1) with a BC ratio of 3.06 can be recommended for further optimization and refinement.ThesisItem Open Access Invasion impact of greater club rush (Scirpus grossus L.f) on wetland rice ecosystem(Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2017) Gayathri Karthikeyan, P; KAU; Sansamma GeorgeThe study entitled “Invasion impact of greater club rush (Scirpus grossus L. f) on wetland rice ecosystem” was conducted at College of Agriculture, Vellayani during 2015-2017. The objectives were to study the invasive characteristics, habitat affinity and distribution of greater club rush, to assess its invasion impact on biodiversity and ecosystem functioning of the wetland ecosystem and also to develop an ecofriendly management strategy for recovering the invaded fields. To achieve the objectives, the study covered four aspects, i.e. Part I. Weed mapping and habitat analysis, Part II. Study of invasive characteristics of greater club rush, part III. Invasion impact on biodiversity and ecosystem functioning of wetlands, Part IV. Management of greater club rush. A preliminary survey on the presence of the emergent hydrophyte in Thiruvananthapuram district indicated that the invasion was mainly concentrated in some pockets in the wetlands adjoining the Vellayani fresh water lake. Hence, the wetland ecosystem of the Vellayani lake watershed was selected as the geographical unit for conducting the investigation. Under Part I, the extent of greater club rush invasion in the wetlands of Thiruvananthapuram district was assessed and mapped using Global Positioning System (GPS) and Geographical Information System (GIS). As per local enquiries, the invasion was noticed for the first time about 15 - 20 years back and was spreading fast in waterlogged paddy fields. However, it was not clear how this alien weed was introduced and naturalised in Kerala. The results of the weed mapping studies revealed that greater club rush invasion was concentrated mainly in the north - western side of wetlands adjoining the Vellayani lake. From the drainage and land use maps, it was inferred that there was a flood plain formed in the locality due to indiscriminate wetland reclamation resulting in impeded drainage. The total area under invasion was approximately 65 ha (47.70 per cent of the rice fallows). During the mapping studies, it was also observed that the ownership of a major portion of these paddy fields was vested with absentee landlords who leave the land uncultivated for a long time thus providing open niches for further spread of the weed. Correlation studies on weed density and dry weight with soil and water parameters of the invaded fields indicated that the weed has high level of habitat tolerance and ecological flexibility and was able to thrive under a wide range of field conditions. Under Part II, the invasive nature of greater club rush was assessed by observing the growth and development characteristics of the weed under field conditions. From the results, it was inferred that, tall stature (1.52 m), dense growth habit (342.23 ramets m-2), low light infiltration (4.36 per cent), high relative growth rate (0.028 g g-1 day-1), efficient propagation (rhizomes, stolons and corms combine for multiplication and perennation), huge biomass (30 t ha-1) and abundance of aerenchyma along with ecological flexibility imparts intense competitiveness for greater club rush making it a successful invader. The major part of the study was to assess the impact of greater club rush invasion on the wetland ecosystem (Part III). Based on the weed mapping and habitat analysis, three heavily infested padasekharams, located within a distance of 5 km were selected for the impact study and monitored for two years. The methodology used was Multisite comparison of the co- existing flora and fauna community, between invaded vs uninvaded sites. Alterations in nutrient cycling and microbial activity due to the invasion were studied by collecting and analyzing soil samples from selected sites during three seasons. The results indicated that greater club rush invasion was depleting the diversity of native vegetation in the wetland ecosystem in terms of species richness and also density. Soil seed bank studies also confirmed the negative impact of the invasion on flora diversity. However, the invaded fields were observed to be rich in faunal diversity and an ideal home for several water birds especially purple moorhen. The thick stand of the weed was found to provide refuge to small animals like rats and snakes also; and these in general were causing trouble to rice farmers in adjacent areas. Contrary to several earlier reports, the impact on the ecosystem functioning parameters was negligible, probably due to occasional flooding and sedimentation in the selected locality. To develop an eco-friendly strategy for managing the weed, an experiment was undertaken in a heavily infested paddy field (Part IV) with eight treatments and three replications and the design was RBD. The treatments were: T1 - (Bensulfuron methyl + Pretilachlor) @ 660g ha-1 on the next day of tilling., T2 - (Bensulfuron methyl + Pretilachlor) @ 1320g ha-1 on the next day of tilling, T3 –Azimsulfuron @ 35g ha-1 at 3-5 leaf stage , T4 -Azimsulfuron @ 70 g ha-1 at 3-5 leaf stage, T5 - (Glyphosate @ 1.0 kg ha-1 + 2, 4 – D sodium salt @ 2.0 kg ha-1) at active growth stage, T6 - (Glyphosate @ 0.5 kg ha-1 + 2, 4 – D @ 1.0 kg ha-1) at reproductive stage, T7 -Tillage (Farmer’s practice) and T8 – Control (Uninterrupted weed growth). Among the various treatments, application of Glyphosate @ 0.5 kg ha-1 + 2, 4 – D @ 1.0 kg ha-1 at the reproductive stage was found to be the best, giving complete weed kill with no further regrowth. The opportunities for utilising the weed and thereby managing it were also investigated during the study. The results revealed that greater club rush with its huge biomass production (>30 t ha-1) could remove many of the heavy metals (arsenic, copper, zinc, lead, chromium, cobalt, nickel and chromium) from contaminated soils more efficiently than water hyacinth which is a well known phytoremediator. The nutritive value of the weed biomass (crude protein - 7.5 per cent, crude fibre- 26.79 per cent) was shown to be comparable with that of guinea grass (crude protein - 8 to14 per cent, crude fibre - 28 to 36 per cent). The K/(Ca+Mg) ratio was 1.39 which is considered to be within safe limits in a livestock feed. However being a phytoextractor, further studies needs to be done for justifying its use as a forage. The study revealed that greater club rush has high level of ecological flexibility and competitiveness which make it a successful invader. The weed has already invaded considerable area of wetland rice ecosystem and is likely to spread further in areas left fallow for long periods. It was found that the invaded fields could be efficiently recovered by application of a tank mixture of glyphosate @ 0.5 kg ha-1 + 2, 4 – D sodium salt @ 1.0 kg ha-1 at the reproductive stage. The major negative impact of the invasion on ecosystem was the decline in species richness and density of native weed community. At the same time, the thick weed growth provided ideal habitat for many faunal species. The weed was found to have the potential to be used for phytostabilisation of heavy metal contaminated soils and the luxuriant biomass had reasonable nutritive value also. The overall conclusion is that greater club rush invasion can become a potential threat to the wetland rice ecosystem, if left undisturbed.
