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Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur
The history of agricultural education in Kerala can be traced back to the year 1896 when a scheme was evolved in the erstwhile Travancore State to train a few young men in scientific agriculture at the Demonstration Farm, Karamana, Thiruvananthapuram, presently, the Cropping Systems Research Centre under Kerala Agricultural University. Agriculture was introduced as an optional subject in the middle school classes in the State in 1922 when an Agricultural Middle School was started at Aluva, Ernakulam District. The popularity and usefulness of this school led to the starting of similar institutions at Kottarakkara and Konni in 1928 and 1931 respectively.
Agriculture was later introduced as an optional subject for Intermediate Course in 1953. In 1955, the erstwhile Government of Travancore-Cochin started the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, Thiruvananthapuram and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences at Mannuthy, Thrissur for imparting higher education in agricultural and veterinary sciences, respectively. These institutions were brought under the direct administrative control of the Department of Agriculture and the Department of Animal Husbandry, respectively. With the formation of Kerala State in 1956, these two colleges were affiliated to the University of Kerala. The post-graduate programmes leading to M.Sc. (Ag), M.V.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees were started in 1961, 1962 and 1965 respectively.
On the recommendation of the Second National Education Commission (1964-66) headed by Dr. D.S. Kothari, the then Chairman of the University Grants Commission, one Agricultural University in each State was established. The State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) were established in India as an integral part of the National Agricultural Research System to give the much needed impetus to Agriculture Education and Research in the Country. As a result the Kerala Agricultural University (KAU) was established on 24th February 1971 by virtue of the Act 33 of 1971 and started functioning on 1st February 1972. The Kerala Agricultural University is the 15th in the series of the SAUs.
In accordance with the provisions of KAU Act of 1971, the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, were brought under the Kerala Agricultural University. In addition, twenty one agricultural and animal husbandry research stations were also transferred to the KAU for taking up research and extension programmes on various crops, animals, birds, etc.
During 2011, Kerala Agricultural University was trifurcated into Kerala Veterinary and Animal Sciences University (KVASU), Kerala University of Fisheries and Ocean Studies (KUFOS) and Kerala Agricultural University (KAU).
Now the University has seven colleges (four Agriculture, one Agricultural Engineering, one Forestry, one Co-operation Banking & Management), six RARSs, seven KVKs, 15 Research Stations and 16 Research and Extension Units under the faculties of Agriculture, Agricultural Engineering and Forestry. In addition, one Academy on Climate Change Adaptation and one Institute of Agricultural Technology offering M.Sc. (Integrated) Climate Change Adaptation and Diploma in Agricultural Sciences respectively are also functioning in Kerala Agricultural University.
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ThesisItem Open Access Economic valuation of mangrove ecosystems in Kerala(Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2013) Hema, M; KAU; Indira Devi, P.Mangroves are invaluable treasure o f our biodiversity with immense ecological and economic significance. But mangroves wealth of the world is depleting at an annual rate of -0. 34 per cent. Mangroves in Kerala, constitute 0.3 per cent o f that in India, is reported to be high in species diversity. The available reports indicate the depleting status o f the ecosystem in Kerala too. The socio-economic and ecological significance o f this ecosystem is to be studied in detail for assisting policy decisions when confronted with the conservation-development debate. This study was undertaken in this background. The study identified the stakeholders o f mangrove ecosystems o f Kerala and quantified the level o f dependence o f local communities for their livelihood and estimated the aggregate demand for products and services. Further, it identified and quantified the relative influence o f socioeconomic, institutional, climatic and anthropogenic forces on the destruction of mangroves and finally assessed the Total Economic Value (TEV) o f mangrove system and suggested policy prescriptions for the conservation and management of mangroves in Kerala. The study was conducted in the mangrove areas o f Emakulam and Kannur districts of Kerala. These two districts accounted for nearly 65 per cent o f the mangroves o f the state. The study was based on primary and secondary data. The primary data was gathered from 480 respondents belonging to four identified stakeholder groups (residents, fishermen, paddy farmers and general public), selected through simple random sampling method. Data was collected through personal interview using structured pretested interview schedule along with direct observation. The major tools of data analysis were Contingent Valuation Method (CVM) and Choice experiment. The data collection was conducted during June 2012 to January 2013. I Four stakeholder groups o f the mangrove ecosystem in the study area were residents living close to mangroves (<1 km from mangroves), fishermen (inland fishermen and women, engaged in shell mining and clam collection, shrimp farmers), paddy farmers (Pokkali and Kaippad) and general public (resides away from the mangroves). The residents were depending on the mangroves for extraction o f fuel wood, fodder and poles. On an average the level o f extraction was 307 kg o f fuel wood, 1024 kg of fodder and 14(no.) o f poles per year valued at X 4628/household. This amounted to 3 per cent o f their annual household income. The major species o f fish catch by the fishermen were Etroplus, shrimp, crab and Tilapia which was quantified at 1553 kg/ year valued at X 1,41,045. Shell mining which was found to be a major economic activity in Kannur region could generate an income of X 30,000/annum through the extraction and sale o f 7500 kg o f shells. Clam collected was quantified at 225 kg/year valued at X 5625. Thus, the average gross income from these activities was estimated at X 1,77,164 per year which was the main source o f income for the household. About 8 per cent of the fishermen were involved in shrimp farming and were mainly from Kannur district. The size o f the farm varied from 0.4 to 2 ha. The input cost/ha was X 2.8 lakhs which includes cost o f seed, feed, lime and water management. Labour cost was estimated at X 77,000. Hence total cost and returns o f shrimp farming/ha was X 3.27 and 4.75 lakhs respectively with net income o f ? 1.48 lakhs. Pokkali and Kaippad agricultural systems are proved to be closely interconnected with the:.mangrove ecosystem and the per hectare gross returns was X 60,007 and X 40,935 respectively. This amounted to average 30 per cent o f their household income. The respondents’ perception on the pattern of change and the major factors that effected the change in mangrove ecosystem was studied based on their responses. 46 per cent o f the respondents were o f the opinion that the mangrove ecosystem has declined over years and facing threat. The major factors responsible for the same were reported as anthropogenic, climatic forces and status o f property rights. The 11 developmental interventions like LNG Petronet Terminal, Puthuvypeen and ICTT Vallarpadam has resulted in large scale conversion o f mangrove areas. The contradictory forces o f development and conservation led to destruction of mangrove ecosystem. One fifth respondents opined that climatic factors were responsible for the decline. Nearly 85 per cent of the mangroves in the state were reported to be under private ownership and rest under public. The property right status along with economic status influences the rate o f depletion. The legal interventions and community and institutional efforts also influence the status of mangroves, most often positively. The economic valuation of ecological benefits o f mangroves was attempted employing the Contingent Valuation Method. The respondents expressed their willingness to contribute towards conservation both in cash and kind (cash payment and manual participation as labour and as volunteer in awareness programmes) and in combination. The average WTP expressed by the respondents was f 2308/annum the range being ? 50-28,870. The TEV of the mangrove ecosystem of the state was thus ? 1,17,947 million, which was 0.14 per cent ofthe GSDP (2011-12). A socially preferred management plan was identified among a set of alternatives, employing the choice experiment method. Among the management options given, the stakeholders preferred community management (41.6%) followed by public management (29.2%) and status quo (21.4%). The community management of the mangrove ecosystem provides opportunity for the local community to participate in management decision process. At the same time, the importance o f public funding for such activities is revealed in the analysis. The study suggests initiating scientific attempts on realistic area estimation and mapping o f the mangrove resources in the state. There should be attempts to identify and classify the species and document the traditional wisdom associated with them. Region specific studies are needed to establish and quantify the extent of association between mangrove ecosystem and the livelihood activities of local communities. The TEV justifies the increased resources allocation for the conservation efforts. Further, the implementation of community management system as institutional form for mangrove management in the state is suggested.ThesisItem Open Access Nutrient Management practices for Heliconia under open condition and as intercrop in coconut garden(Department of Pomology and Floriculture, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2013) Nihad, K; KAU; Sheela, V LHeliconias (Heliconia spp.) are attractive tropical plants grown for their beautiful, brilliant, long lasting colorful inflorescences. Among the Heliconias, Heliconia stricta cv. Iris Red is a commercial variety with high market value due to its unique crimson coloured bracts with a definite shape. They grow well in soils rich in organic matter with full sunlight to 40% shade, but little is known about its nutrient management practices when grown under monocropped or intercropped conditions especially in low fertile soils with less water holding capacity. Hence two experiments on Heliconia stricta cv. Iris Red as intercrop in coconut garden (Experiment I) and as monocrop in open condition (Experiment II) were laid out in RBD for a period of two years during 2010- 2012 with five treatments and four replications in Central Plantation Crops Research Institute (Regional Station), Kayamkulam, Kerala State. The present investigation was to standardize a manurial schedule for enhancing production and quality of Heliconia flowers when grown under same nutrient management practice in two cropping systems. This also aimed at comparing the quality and vase life of flowers grown under different conditions and thereby standardizing an integrated nutrient recommendation suitable for each system of cropping. In both the experiments growth parameters such as plant height, number of suckers and number of leaves were significantly higher in treatment supplied with 5 g NPK @ 13:5:13kg/ha (T2 ) which was on par with the treatment supplied with Vermicompost (VC) @ 200g/plant +Neemcake (NC) @ 100g/plant (T3). The values were higher for plants grown under coconut canopy than in open condition. The physiological characters like leaf area, LAI, specific leaf area, leaf area duration and leaf area density were also higher in T3 and T2 under both the systems of cropping. All the parameters except leaf area density were higher in plants under intercropped condition. In experiment I and II, treatment T3 took the lowest number of days for first flowering (172.8 and 280.3 respectively) whereas T2 took the longest time to start flowering (295 and 362.5 days respectively). There was no significant difference among the treatments in time taken for fifty percent flowering under intercropped condition, whereas in open condition, T2 plants took the longest (459.8 days) and T3 plants the shortest (370.0days) duration .to attain fifty percent flowering. The stages from fully emerged or just opened (Stage II ) to complete unfurling of bracts (Stage III) and the life of fully opened flower in plant (Stage III to IV) was more in intercropped condition (23.3 to 38.5 days) than in monocropped condition (17.05 days to 27.3 days).In both the experiments, T3 recorded the highest longivity followed by T2. The inflorescence characters such as length, number of bracts, stem length and stem diameter were more under intercropped condition. Superior quality flowers were produced in T3 under both the systems of planting. In intercropped condition T2 and T5 (VC @ 100g/plant +NC @ 50g/plant + 2.5 g NPK @ 13:5:13kg/ha) plants also produced such flowers. The fresh weight of fully opened inflorescence was significantly higher in T3 and T5 under both the systems of planting. In the visual appeal test, the total score for the inflorescences produced in the intercropped area was higher and T3 scored the highest value under both the experiments. T3 plants recorded the highest wax, caroteniod content, carotenoid- chlorophyll ratio and vase life(12.9 days and 10.5 days respectively ) in experiment I and II. The highest leaf chlorophyll and wax content was recorded in T3 plants under both the systems of planting. The leaf nutrient content such as N, P, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn and Zn was the highest in T3 plants under both systems of cropping condition. The plant uptake of N and P was the highest in T2 plots of the intercropped area, whereas, T4 recorded the highest uptake in open condition. T2 recorded the highest K uptake in both the experiments. The lowest N and K uptake was in T3 plots. The treatment supplied with VC and NC (T3) recorded significantly higher P, Ca, Mg and Fe content of soil in both the systems of planting. In both the experiments, T2 recorded significantly higher K values (20.6ppm and 20.0ppm respectively). In both the experiments, T3 produced the highest number of marketable flowers and suckers. Among the treatments T5 recorded the highest land equivalent ratio (1.49) followed by T3 (1.43), T2 and T4 (1.4) and T1 (1.39). The nutrient balance sheet for N, P and K was higher in T3 under both the cropping situations. In general, the nutrient balance for P and K was more in monocropped condition. Growing Heliconia as an intercrop had a positive impact on coconut yield and yield parameters during the two seasons of growth period June and December (2010-2011). The leaf nutrient content of coconut was found to increase gradually during the period of observations. The present study revealed that Heliconia stricta cv. Iris Red is a potential intercrop in coconut gardens. The plants had a superior vegetative growth and inflorescence production in sandy soils with low nutrient and water holding capacity by supplying cowdung @ 1kg/plant + bonemeal @250 g/plant basally and topdressing equal doses of Vermicompost (VC) @ 200g/plant +Neemcake (NC) @ 100g/plant (T3 ) at quarterly intervals from three months after planting under both the conditions of cropping system. This was followed by the treatment supplying cowdung @ 1kg/plant + bonemeal @250 g/plant basally and topdressing same doses of VC @ 100g/plant +NC @ 50g/plant + 13:5:13NPK@2.5 g/plant (T5 ). .ThesisItem Open Access Efficacy and biosafety of new generation insecticides for the management of fruit borers of cowpea, brinjal and okra(Department of Agricultural Entomology, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2013) Vijayasree, V; KAU; Hebsy BaiThe investigation on the “Efficacy and biosafety of new generation insecticides for the management of fruit borers of cowpea, brinjal and okra” was conducted at the College of Agriculture, Vellayani, during 2010-2013. The objectives were to evaluate the efficacy of new generation insecticides against the fruit borers of cowpea, brinjal and okra, assess their safety to entomopathogenic fungi, determine their persistence and degradation and standardize methods to decontaminate the residues on the fruits. The studies were conducted with eight new generation insecticides viz., emamectin benzoate 5SG @10 g a.i. ha-1, spinosad 45 SC @ 75 g a.i. ha-1, novaluron 10 EC @ 100 g a.i. ha-1, chlorantraniliprole 18.5 SC @ 30 g a.i. ha-1, indoxacarb 14.5 SC @ 60 g a.i. ha-1, fipronil 80 WG @ 50 g a.i. ha-1, thiodicarb 75 WP @ 750 g a.i. ha-1 and flubendiamide 480 SC @ 100 g a.i. ha-1 . Two conventional insecticides (carbaryl 50 WP @ 750 g a.i. ha-1 and malathion 50 EC @ 500 g a.i. ha-1) and an untreated control were maintained as check. Laboratory screening of the insecticidesagainst Maruca vitrata, Leucinodes orbonalis and Earias vitella, indicated high mortality of the pests one and three days after treatment with a subsequent decline in the mortality. The insecticides were on par in their efficacy. All the new generation insecticides reduced the pest infestation on the vegetables significantly in the field. The reduction in the flower and pod damages in cowpea ranged from 53.97 to 76.86 and 63.69 to 84.82 per cent, respectively. Damages to brinjal and okra fruits were reduced by 45.96 to 72.21 per cent and 44.34 to 83.26 per cent, respectively. Chlorantraniliprole, indoxacarb and emamectin benzoate which recorded more than 70 and 80 per cent reduction in flower and pod damages in cowpea, chlorantraniliprole, indoxacarb, emamectin benzoate and flubendiamide with more than 60 per cent reduction in fruit damage in brinjal, and chlorantraniliprole, flubendiamide and indoxacarb with more than 70 per cent reduction in fruit damage in okra were superior. The yield was also significantly high in these treatments in the three crops. Prophylactic sprays with neem seed kernel extract 5 % at flower bud initiation and after a fortnight, decreased the population of the pod borer of cowpea remarkably. Subsequently, one spray of the insecticides sufficed to check the pest. All the insecticides were compatible with Beauveria bassiana and Metarrhiziumanisopliae. Flubendiamide and carbaryl inhibited the growth of Lecanicillium lecanii. Chlorantraniliprole with a waiting period of one day in all the three vegetables was the safest insecticide. The other insecticides with waiting periodswithin the harvest intervals of the crops were spinosad (1day), emamectin benzoate (3 days) and flubendiamide (3 days) in cowpea, indoxacarb (1day), spinosad (1day) and emamectin benzoate (4 days) in brinjal and indoxacarb (2 days) and thiodicarb (2 days) in okra. Immersing insecticide treated fruits in slaked lime 2%, turmeric 1 %, vinegar 2% or tamarind 2% solution for twenty minutes followed by washing in water and scrubbing which removed more than 60 per cent residues of most of the insecticides were the effective decontaminating methods for the new generation insecticides. Considering the efficacy of the insecticides against the pests, associated yield increase, benefit cost ratio of the insecticide treatments, waiting period and compatibility with bio agents, chlorantraniliprole 18.5 SC @ 30 g a.i. ha-1, indoxacarb 14.5 SC @ 60 g a.i. ha-1 and emamectin benzoate 5SG @10 g a.i. ha-1 were adjudged as the potential insecticides against the fruit borers of cowpea, brinjal and okra.ThesisItem Open Access Gene expression analysis in relation to Fusarium wilt resistance in banana (Musa spp.)(Centre for Plant Biotechnology and Molecular Biology, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2013) Jusna Mariya, P L; KAU; Keshavachandran, RBanana is one of the important fruit crops of India. Banana is susceptible to several fungal pathogens, nematodes, viruses and insect pests. The greatest threats to global banana production is Fusarium wilt or Panama wilt caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense. Control of the pathogen is difficult and mainly involves the use of disease free suckers. Although disease resistance exists in some banana cultivars, introducing resistance into commercial cultivars by conventional breeding is difficult due to its triploid nature and sterility factors of banana. The study entitled "Gene expression analysis in relation to Fusarium wilt resistance in banana (Musa spp.)" was carried out at the Centre for Plant Biotechnology and Molecular Biology, Vellanikkara during the period 2009-2013 with an objective to identify differentially expressed genes in disease resistant genotype of banana, Palayankodan using the molecular technique called suppression subtractive hybridization (SSH). Total RNA and mRNA were isolated from healthy and inoculated plants (with Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cubense) and were used respectively as 'driver' and 'tester' in SSH reaction. The reactions were performed utilizing the PCR select" cDNA subtraction kit provided by CLONTECH, USA. Control subtraction was carried out first using PCR select" cDNA subtraction kit, which gave satisfactory and expected results. For experimental subtraction, the double stranded cDNAs synthesized from Zug mRNA from normal 'driver' and treated 'tester' were digested with RsaI enzyme. Two tester populations were created and each ligated to two different adaptors. This was followed by two hybridization reactions and finally a selective PCR amplification. Only differentially expressed cDNAs were amplified exponentially. This was confirmed by analyzing the PCR products on agarose gel, which showed a smear ranging from 0.9 to 1.3 kb in the subtracted sample and was different from smear pattern of unsubtracted ones. The cDNA fragments from subtracted sample were cloned in pJET and pGEMT vectors and sequenced. Fifty clones were sequenced and analysed after vector and adaptor editing. In silica analysis using bioinformatics tools revealed that some of the cloned sequences showed similarity with known sequences which play important roles during disease resistance conditions directly or indirectly. These included resistance gene candidate NBS type protein, mitogen activated protein kinase, phytoene desaturase, glycerol 3-phosphate dehydrogenase, neutral invertase, 1- aminocyclopropane-l-carboxylase synthase, superoxide dismutase, MADS-box protein, ubiquitin 2, actin, NADPH oxidase, phytoene synthase, ACC synthase, sucrose phosphate synthase, phosphatidic acid phosphatase-like protein, ORF III like polyprotein, bHLH transcription factor like protein, cytochrome oxidase, isochorismatase hydrolase, basic helix-loop-helix family protein, constitutive triple response I-like protein, granule bound starch synthase, alpha amylase precursor, rop protein, GTPase family protein, S-adenosyl-L-methionine synthase protein, ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase glucose-l-phosphate adenylyl trans, ethylene signal transduction factor and ribosomal protein. Clones were classified into 6 major groups based on function of protein. Sequences had conserved domains for the above mentioned proteins. Genes involved in defense, signal transduction, metabolism, hypothetical protein, transcription factor and translation. For further exploitation of these sequences it is necessary to clone full length cDNA. ESTs thus generated in the present study will be of great use in future for further downstream applications.ThesisItem Open Access Pathogenic and genetic variability in Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae (Ishiyama) Swings et al. and the management of bacterial blight disease(Department of Plant Pathology, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2013) Purushothaman, S M; KAU; Rehumath Niza, T JBacterial blight of rice is a major threat in rice cultivation causing huge yield loss to the crop. Realizing the practical importance, an investigation entitled on “Pathogenic and genetic variability in Xanthomonas oryzae pv.oryzae (Ishiyama) Swings et al. and management of bacterial blight disease” was carried out during 2006-2011. A series of surveys conducted in 14 locations of three major rice growing districts (Alappuzha, Palakkad and Thrissur) of Kerala during September 2007 to find out the occurrence of bacterial blight disease. High incidence was recorded in Palakkad district. During, the survey, the characteristic symptom of bacterial blight as yellow lesions on the both the margins of the leaf leaving a green area in the centre of leaf were observed. The pathogen causing bacterial blight of rice was isolated from 14 locations of the said districts and their pathogenicity was established. Based on the cultural, morphological and biochemical characters, the pathogen was identified as Xanthomonas oryzae pv.oryzae (Xoo) (Ishiyama) Swings et al. The 14 isolates showed slight variation in their cultural, morphological and biochemical characters. Pathotype studies were conducted in net house using 14 isolates on 20 popular and commonly cultivated rice varieties, six near isogenic lines having different R genes/gene combination and two rice differentials with no genes. It could distinguish the virulence spectrum of the isolates into three groups/categories namely ‘highly virulent’, ‘moderately virulent’ and ‘weakly virulent’ isolates/strains. The study on the kresek symptom also confirmed the above finding. BOX and ERIC-PCR fingerprinting depicted the existence of high level of genetic variability among the pathogen population in the rice growing areas of Kerala. In vitro sensitivity of six bactericides against the four highly virulent isolates of Xoo revealed that tetracycline 250 ppm, tetracycline 100 ppm, tetracycline 50 ppm, streptocycline 250 ppm, streptocycline 200 ppm and Bactrinashak 250 ppm were effective against the pathogen. In vitro sensitivity of different organics and agrochemicals revealed that cow dung extract 2% + vermicompost extract 2%, cow dung extract 2% + P. fluorescens 2%, vermicompost extract 2% + P. fluorescens 2%, vermicompost extract 2 %, copper hydroxide 0.15% were found effective against the pathogen, in that order. The 110 bacterial isolates obtained from rice rhizosphere, rice endosphere and cowdung and vermicompost, screened against the Polpully virulent pathogen could yield six prominent bacterial isolates viz., RE-1, RR-26, RR-53, CB-39, VB-67 and VB-69 and were tentatively identified as Pseudomonas sp. Pot culture experiment, showed that tetracycline 250 ppm, tetracycline 100 ppm, streptocycline 250 ppm, Bactrinashak 250 ppm, tetracycline 50 ppm, bacteria from cow dung (CB-39), bacteria from vermicompost (VB-69), endosphere bacteria (RE-1), rhizosphere bacteria (RR-26), cow dung extract 2% + P. fluorescens 2%, vermicompost extract 2% + P. fluorescens 2% and cow dung extract 2% + vermicompost extract 2%, rhizosphere bacteria (RR-53) and copper hydroxide 0.15% were found best in managing the bacterial blight disease. Seven bacterial antagonists viz., RE-1, RR-26, RR-53, CB-39, VB-67 VB-69 and Pf1 when subjected to compatibility studies against Xoo under in vitro showed 17 combinations, showing synergistic effect in inhibiting the Xoo. In the compatibility study of seven antagonists with nine pesticides, 71 two way combinations were found synergestic effect against Xoo. The compatibility of 13 agrochemicals under in vitro against Xoo, revealed that 50 two way combinations showed synergistic action in inhibiting the pathogen. Three two way combinations showed compatible action in inhibiting the pathogen. In the compatibility of four fertilizers viz., urea, rajphos, muriate of potash and ammonium sulphate showed that five two way combinations proved synergistic action in inhibiting the pathogen. All the seven antagonistic bacteria and 17 agrochemicals showed the compatible reaction in inhibiting Xoo. The seven bacterial antagonists were subjected for various growth promoting characters viz., ‘P’ solubilization, NH3 and HCN production. The six isolates differed slightly for the above characters. All the isolates could produce siderophore and IAA. A few isolates could produce non volatile metabolites. The field study established the most practical finding that the tetracycline 50 ppm, tetracycline 100 ppm, bacterial consortium (RE-1+CB-39), bacterial consortium (CB-39 +VB-69), bacteria from cow dung (CB-39), endosphere bacteria (RE-1), bacteria from vermicompost (VB-69), streptocycline 250 ppm, Bactrinashak 250 ppm, cow dung extract 2% + KAU-(Pf1) 2%, rhizosphere bacteria (RR-26) and KAU-(Pf1) 2% were found promising in managing bacterial blight disease of rice. Thus, apart from bactericides, there was a variety of highly promising organic management possibilities to combat the disease.ThesisItem Open Access Geospatial analysis and soil nutrient dynamics of Rubber plantations in relation to growing environment(Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2013) Shankar, Meti; KAU; Meera Bai, MPara rubber (Hevea brasiliensis Muell. Arg.) grown in varied soil and climate condition in traditional rubber growing regions of India. Variability in soil and climate influences performance of rubber and for this site specific management helps to increase input use efficiency and enhance crop production. Geospatial analysis under GIS environment helps to integrate soil and climate variability and identify the limitations and potential areas for enhancing the rubber production without horizontal expansion of rubber cultivation. Hence the present study was undertaken with the following objectives 1. To develop soil, climate, rubber area and rubber yield database to understand the variability of rubber productivity. 2. To prepare rubber distribution map and delineate productivity constraint area map of rubber in Kanaykumari and Kasargod. 3. To study the soil nutrient dynamics and phenology of rubber in different growing environments. Objectives of the present study were addressed by conducting two experiments. Under experiment I, two districts - Kanyakumari and Kasargod - were selected and identified 60 holdings in each district distributed over different Soil Management Unit (SMU). Recorded girth and Tapping Panel Dryness (TPD) observations and collected surface soil sample (0-30 cm) from identified holdings and analyzed for major nutrient and physical parameters. Using GPS reading developed holdings soil database and generated soil nutrient map and brought under GIS platform to identify the soil constraint areas. Water balance approach was followed to delineate climate constraint area in each district. Rubber distribution map was developed for each district using satellite image and overlayed with soil and climate constraint map to know the extent of rubber area under soil and climate constraint. Under experiment II, Kottayam district was selected for studying the soil nutrient dynamics of mature rubber plantation in relation to phenology and growing environment. Identified two holdings in each of three elevation classes; 0-100, 100-300 and > 300m. Collected surface soil samples and recorded rubber phenology at monthly interval. Soil samples were analyzed for pH, OC, nitrogen, exchangeable Al. Recorded annual litter fall and mineralization potential. Rainfall and temperature were recorded at one location in each of the three elevation classes. Mean soil OC, available P, K, Ca and Mg varied significantly between Kanyakumari and Kasargod district. Soil available P and K were significantly higher in Kanyakumari where as soil OC, available Ca and Mg were significantly higher in Kasargod. Within the district, soil OC, available P, K and Ca showed high spatial variability. Rainfall distribution was distinctly different in two districts. Well distributed rainfall with less dry period and long growing period was seen in Kanyakumari. In Kasargod rainfall was concentrated between June- September, as a result dry period was longer and growing period was shorter. During December to March period moisture stress level was more in Kasargod compared to Kanyakumari. Performance of rubber in terms of girth and rubber yield was better in Kanyakumari compared to Kasargod. Average per tree rubber yield (g/tree/tap) during dry period and annual yield per unit area (kg/ha/year) was significantly higher in Kanyakumari compared to Kasargod. Incidence of Tapping Panel Dryness (TPD) was significantly more in Kasargod compared to Kanyakumari. Leaf nutrient content showed balance level of N, P and K and deficiency of Ca and excess of Mg in Kanyakumari. In Kasargod leaf K was balanced, whereas Mg was in excess and deficiency of nutrient was in the order of P>Ca>N. Rubber showed a distinct signature compared to other vegetation. Satellite based rubber area was estimated with good accuracy and rubber area was comparable with ground statistics. Ovrelay analysis indicated that considerable extent of rubber area in Kanyakumari distributed over area without moisture stress but same was not seen in Kasargod. In general all rubber area in Kasargod comes under poor to very poor moisture adequacy during summer compared to only 48 per cent rubber area in Kanyakumari experienced poor moisture adequacy during summer. In Kanyakumari 28 per cent of rubber area distributed over low available P, medium in OC, K and high Ca and Mg followed by 18 per cent over area medium in OC, available P ,K and high in available Ca and Mg. In Kasargod, 61 per cent rubber area distributed over low available P, medium K and high in OC, available Ca and Mg. In Kanyakumari district soil cation (Ca and Mg), and soil OC factors showed significant relation with rubber growth and yield. In Kasargod only topography factor showed significant relation with rubber yield. In Experiment II rubber showed distinct phenological difference over elevation with rubber in high elevation showing early wintering compared to low elevation. Number of new leaf flushes was more in low elevation compared to high elevation. Annual litter addition did not vary along elevation; however rate of litter decomposition was slow at high elevation compared to low elevation. In general maximum and minimum temperature was low at high elevation where as no marked difference in quantity and distribution of rainfall was seen along elevation. Soil OC was significantly higher at high elevation compared to low elevation, but mineralization of soil OC and total N was significantly low at high elevation compared to low elevation. Peak soil total N was observed for short period at high elevation indicating the short growing period compared to low elevation. Wide gap between potential and actual NO3 and NH4 nitrogen at low elevation compared to high elevation indicated the loss at low elevation through leaching and denitrification. At low and medium elevation, rubber active growth stage coincided with peak N mineralization whereas peak rubber yield period coincided with low N mineralization. But at high elevation both active growth and peak yield coincided with peak N mineralization. At high elevation, climate factor showed significant positive relation with next month rubber yield indicating the climate limitation at high elevation. At low elevation, climate factor and soil reaction factor did not show significant relation with next month rubber yield indicating mineralization and climate are not limiting at low elevation.ThesisItem Open Access Site specific nutrient management for bitter gourd (Momordica charantia L)(Department of Soil Science & Agricultural Chemistry, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2013) Neenu, S; KAU; Sudharmai Devi, C RA study entitled ‘Site specific nutrient management for bitter gourd (Momordica charantia L.) was conducted in College of Agriculture, Vellayani during 2007-12 with the objective of formulating a site specific nutrient recommendation for enhancing the bitter gourd production in Kalliyur village of Kerala. The experiment set up included three steps namely Omission trial, SSNM field study and validation of results. All the experiments were conducted in farmer’s fields of Kalliyur village. Kalliyur village, located in Thiruvananthapuram district with an area of 17.23 km is one of the major vegetable growing tracts and bitter gourd is a popular vegetable in the locality. Spatial variability studies conducted revealed that remarkable variations existed in the soil properties across the village. Data on irrigation water analysis showed that the water used for irrigation was slightly acidic but safe for irrigation as it did not contain significant amount of soluble salts and other elements. Nutrient omission trial conducted in a farmer’s field at selected location showed that the indigenous supply of major nutrients in the locality is limited. The growth and yield parameters were the highest in (+) NPK treatment. Though the highest yield was recorded in (+) NPK plots, yield reduction in P omission plot was less compared to N and K omission owing to the higher supply of indigenous P in soil. The SSNM experiment revealed that site specific nutrient recommendations for high yield target with soil application of micronutrients recorded the highest values for all the growth and yield attributes of bitter gourd. Nutrient uptake and harvest index were also the highest in this treatment. The lowest value of harvest index was recorded by absolute control. In the case of nutrient balance sheet the highest value of N and K balance sheet was obtained in site specific nutrient recommendations for high yield target with soil application of micronutrients while the highest value of P balance sheet was obtained in farmer’s practice II. The correlation study revealed that bitter gourd yield was highly correlated with nutrient uptake as well as dry matter production and harvest index. Economic analysis showed that the SSNM practice is beneficial to farmers as it is able to provide more income than the usual farmer’s practice. The validation trial of the best treatments SSNM treatments with high yield target showed that the yield increase was consistent and hence can be prescribed to other farmers in Kalliyur village. The study thus conclusively proved that the present rates of fertiliser recommendation are not at all sufficient for getting maximum yield and profit to farmers. A site-specific nutrient prescription of 123: 59: 160: 30: 40: 25: 10 kg N P K Ca Mg Zn B ha -1 was found to produce 24 t of fruits ha -1 and a dose of 123: 59: 160: 30: 40 kg N P K Ca Mg + 1 per cent Zn foliar + 0.5 per cent B foliar ha were found to yield 22 t fruits ha -1 . The farmers in the area could get a monetary benefit of 601604/- and 542104/- ha -1 respectively by adopting these recommendations. Adoption of SSNM prescriptions is advantageous not only from the point of view of increasing profitability to farmers but also minimizing environmental degradation.ThesisItem Open Access Chemistry and transformation of boron in soils of Kerala(Department of Soil Science & Agricultural Chemistry, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2013) Santhosh, C; KAU; Sureshkumar, PSixty five representative soil samples from 23 agro ecological units under five agro ecological zones of the state were collected and characterised with respect to the available boron status for the present study on “Chemistry and transformation of boron in soils of Kerala”. The samples were characterised for pH, EC, CEC, PBS, exchangeable cations, total sesquioxide and available nutrient status (organic carbon, P, K, Ca, Mg, S, Fe, Mn, Zn and Cu) along with available boron.. Among these soils 18 per cent of samples which included samples from southern and northern coastal sandy plains were deficient in boron (< 0.5 mg kg-1) while the acid saline soils of Pokkali and Kaipad have recorded highest levels of available boron (> 3.0 mg kg-1). The availability of boron was found to increase with soil acidity and electrical conductivity. Thirty one soil samples selected from 65 characterised samples representing all the AEUs and ensuring variability in physico-chemical properties and available boron were subjected to fractionation of soil boron. The different fractions, readily soluble, specifically adsorbed, organically bound, oxide bound and residual boron accounted a mean status of 0.59, 0.86, 1.79, 2.31 and 94.45 per cent of total boron respectively in soils of different AEUs in Kerala. All the fractions except residual boron were significantly and negatively correlated with soil pH, and positively correlated with electrical conductivity. The oxide bound and residual boron were highly positively and significantly correlated with the content of sesquioxide and clay and the organically bound boron was significantly correlated with organic carbon content indicating the influence of organic matter, oxides and hydrous oxides dominated amorphous clay minerals of tropical soils in retention and solubility of boron. Among the six soils included for adsorption studies (lateritic soil from Pattambi, wet land soil from Elavampadam, sandy soil from Onattukara, black cotton soil from chittoor, Kole land soils from Thrissur and Kayal land soil from Kuttanad), only two soils ie. Onattukara and Kayal land soils followed Langmuir adsorption isotherms at 250C. The adsorption data for all the soils except Onattukara sandy soil could be fitted in to Freundlich adsorption isotherm both at 25 and 400C. The amount of boron adsorbed at unit equilibrium concentration ( Freundlich K: KF) decreased with increase in temperature from 25 to 400C. The intercept of Quantity-Intensity curve decreased to negative values at higher temperature indicating desorption of boron from the sites when solution concentration fell below equilibrium concentration. The decrease in free energy with a positive enthalpy and a positive entropy in Pattambi, Elavampadam, Onattukara and Kole soils revealed that the adsorption of boron were spontaneous and endothermic. The reverse was the case with black soils of Chittoor and Kole land soils where adsorption was exothermic and non spontaneous. The incubation experiment conducted for a period of three months with different levels of organic matter and borax in three soils ie. Onattukara sandy, lateritic upland and low land of Elavampadam revealed the clear role of organic matter in adsorption, retention and release of boron. Either organic matter or borax independently could increase available boron substantially after one month of incubation and maintained almost a constant level during the further course of incubation. However higher levels of organic matter reduced the available boron after one month incubation as a result of adsorption by organic matter. At highest level of organic matter and borax (15 t and 12 kg ha-1 respectively), adsorption of boron was highest. The field experiment to optimize the boron nutrition for rice in low land lateritic soils in central Palakkad plains (Elavampadam) revealed the clear role of boron in improving the productivity of tillers, number of grains per panicle, thousand grain weight and ultimately yield. The response curve fitted to find out the optimum dose of boron for grain yield showed that application of borax @ 5.5 kg ha-1 would result in yield improvement to the tune of 1 t ha-1. The fractionation of soil boron at panicle initiation and harvest stage indicated that both readily soluble and specifically adsorbed boron in soil increased with the levels of borax up to 6 kg ha-1 while the other fractions increased linearly with the levels of borax up to 12 kg ha-1. The correlation studies and path analysis clearly indicated that plant absorption of boron mainly take place from readily soluble, specifically adsorbed and organically bound boron in that order due to the existence of dynamic equilibrium between these fractions.ThesisItem Open Access Food and nutritional security scenario of BPL families of central zone of Kerala(Department of Home Science, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2013) Blossom, K.L; KAU; Indira, VThe study entitled “Food and Nutritional Security Scenario of BPL Families of Central Zone of Kerala” was undertaken to assess the extent and determinants of food and nutritional security among the BPL families of Central Kerala and to study the impact of food security on the nutritional status of women and preschool children. All the four districts of Central Zone of Kerala namely Thrissur, Ernakulam, Palakkad and Malappuram were selected for the study. A total of 400 BPL families comprising 100 families from each district formed the sample for the study. Detailed study on nutritional status of women and preschool children as well as Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) were conducted among 60 women in the age group of 25 to 35 years and 60 preschool children in the age group of 3 to 5 years. The food security of the families was assessed by the three dimensions namely food access, availability and absorption of nutrients. Access and availability were assessed by the socioeconomic status, food consumption pattern and food purchasing pattern of the families. Absorption was determined by assessing the nutritional status of the family members. Overall food security of the families was measured using USDA (2000) module and MSSRF (2008) index. Nutritional security of the families and family members were determined from the intake of nutrients. Nuclear family system with four to six members was observed among most of the families. Educational and occupational status indicated that most of the adult members were literate and working as labourers on daily wages. The monthly income of 72 per cent of families varied from Rs. 4001/- to 12,000/. Most of the families did not earn any income from domestic animals and 27.25 per cent had the habit of saving money. The monthly expenditure pattern of the families revealed that 76 per cent spent up to 50 per cent of their income for food. Most of the families had own houses built with bricks, tiled roofing and cement flooring. Electricity and toilet facilities were present in almost all houses. Health care facilities were found to be satisfactory and 82 per cent of families utilised the public health facilities available in their locality. Three meal a day pattern was followed by 98 per cent of the families and they kept regular time schedule for taking meal. However, only 37 per cent planned their meal in advance and only 48 per cent of families included raw fruits and vegetables in their diet. Most frequently used food items were cereals, pulses, other vegetables, fats and oils, sugar and fish. Green leafy vegetables, roots and tubers, fruits, milk and milk products and eggs were used to a lesser extent. All families spent upto ten per cent of their food expenditure for the purchase of cereals. Fifty five to 61 per cent of the families spent 11 to 20 per cent of the monthly food expenses for the purchase of fish and other vegetables. The quantity of vegetables, fruits and milk and milk products purchased by majority of the families satisfied less than 25 per cent of the requirement. Gross inadequacy in the intake of all food groups except non vegetarian items was noticed among the family members. The intake of macro and micronutrients was also found to be lower than the recommended dietary allowances suggested by ICMR. Different grades of malnutrition were noticed among children, adolescents and adult members. On the basis of anthropometric indicators, normal nutritional status was noticed only among 37 per cent children below 12 years, 45 per cent adolescents, 48 per cent adults and 55 per cent elderly. Gross deficit in the intake of certain food groups and nutrients was also noticed among women and preschool children. Mild form of nutritional anaemia was prevalent among 40.82 per cent women and 31.71 per cent preschool children. However, clinical signs of nutritional deficiencies were noticed only to a lesser extent among women and preschool children. The blood profile for serum protein, albumin, globulin and creatinine was also found to be in the normal range indicating adequacy in the protein status among women and preschool children. The overall food and nutritional security was found to be below 20 per cent among the BPL families of Central Kerala. Families without children had better food and nutritional security. Comparatively, severe food and nutritional insecurity affected only a small proportion of the families. Mild to moderate forms of insecurity were more prevalent. Food security had a positive impact on the nutritional status of women and preschool children. Among the different factors affecting food security, family size was found to be the most important one.