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Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur
The history of agricultural education in Kerala can be traced back to the year 1896 when a scheme was evolved in the erstwhile Travancore State to train a few young men in scientific agriculture at the Demonstration Farm, Karamana, Thiruvananthapuram, presently, the Cropping Systems Research Centre under Kerala Agricultural University. Agriculture was introduced as an optional subject in the middle school classes in the State in 1922 when an Agricultural Middle School was started at Aluva, Ernakulam District. The popularity and usefulness of this school led to the starting of similar institutions at Kottarakkara and Konni in 1928 and 1931 respectively.
Agriculture was later introduced as an optional subject for Intermediate Course in 1953. In 1955, the erstwhile Government of Travancore-Cochin started the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, Thiruvananthapuram and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences at Mannuthy, Thrissur for imparting higher education in agricultural and veterinary sciences, respectively. These institutions were brought under the direct administrative control of the Department of Agriculture and the Department of Animal Husbandry, respectively. With the formation of Kerala State in 1956, these two colleges were affiliated to the University of Kerala. The post-graduate programmes leading to M.Sc. (Ag), M.V.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees were started in 1961, 1962 and 1965 respectively.
On the recommendation of the Second National Education Commission (1964-66) headed by Dr. D.S. Kothari, the then Chairman of the University Grants Commission, one Agricultural University in each State was established. The State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) were established in India as an integral part of the National Agricultural Research System to give the much needed impetus to Agriculture Education and Research in the Country. As a result the Kerala Agricultural University (KAU) was established on 24th February 1971 by virtue of the Act 33 of 1971 and started functioning on 1st February 1972. The Kerala Agricultural University is the 15th in the series of the SAUs.
In accordance with the provisions of KAU Act of 1971, the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, were brought under the Kerala Agricultural University. In addition, twenty one agricultural and animal husbandry research stations were also transferred to the KAU for taking up research and extension programmes on various crops, animals, birds, etc.
During 2011, Kerala Agricultural University was trifurcated into Kerala Veterinary and Animal Sciences University (KVASU), Kerala University of Fisheries and Ocean Studies (KUFOS) and Kerala Agricultural University (KAU).
Now the University has seven colleges (four Agriculture, one Agricultural Engineering, one Forestry, one Co-operation Banking & Management), six RARSs, seven KVKs, 15 Research Stations and 16 Research and Extension Units under the faculties of Agriculture, Agricultural Engineering and Forestry. In addition, one Academy on Climate Change Adaptation and one Institute of Agricultural Technology offering M.Sc. (Integrated) Climate Change Adaptation and Diploma in Agricultural Sciences respectively are also functioning in Kerala Agricultural University.
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ThesisItem Open Access Women empowerment through group action in the kudumbashree programme of kerala: a multidimensional analysis(Department Of Agricultural Extension, College Of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2007) Priya Devi, R; KAU; Mothilal Nehru, SThe study was aimed to assess the extent of eradication of poverty and the dimensions of empowerment in the Kudumbashree programme of Kerala government for poverty alleviation. The determinants of performance of Self Help Groups organized in neighborhood basis and their functional and structural analysis including the tangible and intangible benefits and constraints were also studied. Suggestions to enhance the efficiency of the Self Help Groups(SHGs) in agriculture and other sectors organized under the Kudumbashree programme were made. A sample of 300 respondents was selected at random from three districts of three regions of the state namely Thiruvananthapuram from south Kerala, Ernakulam from central Kerala and Malappuram from north Kerala which were selected randomly. In each district, 25 SHGs comprising 20 non-agriculture and 5 agriculture oriented SHGs were selected. The structural and functional analysis of Kudumbashree was carried out by Mc Kinsey procedure of SWOT analysis. The implementing category of personnel namely top management, middle management and grass-root functionaries and the selected SHG members were the respondents for the study. The nature, extent and style of functioning of Kudumbashree were studied with the above respondents.Besides, all implementing personnel working in the above three districts were also selected. Interactions with state level management personnel were done to elicit information regarding the study and also for triangulating findings. A sub sample consisting of five poorly performing SHGs from agriculture and non-agriculture sectors making total of ten SHGs on the basis of perception of the implementing officials and the result of the study were selected for in depth sub sample analysis and their limitations were stated. In the study it was assumed that the dependent variables poverty eradication and women empowerment were interrelated with the performance level of the groups having an intervening effect .A measurement scale for PEI was developed to measure extent of poverty eradication which was one of the dependent variable as a specific objective of the study. Poverty eradication index was the yardstick or standard to measure how far the Kudumbashree has alleviated the incidence of poverty among the members .The index consisted of eight constitutive factors and the cumulative expression of the scores in relation to the factors is the poverty eradication index of the respondent. The data was gathered by using the pre tested interview schedule / questionnaire developed for the study. Statistical tools used in the study were quartile deviation, mean, ANOVA and correlation analysis. Poverty eradication index score and empowerment score were given in quartile range to show the extent of poverty eradication and empowerment attained by the Kudumbashree programme. Categorisation was done in low, medium, high and over. As recorded in the study, regarding health care majority of the respondents were dependent on primary health care centre and the constraints felt were lack of supply of medicines, doctors not being available for ensuring timely medical care and the primary health centre located far away from the home. Nature of savings of respondents were with majority having group savings while post office savings, insurance and chitties were also reported.Borrowing pattern regarding the source of borrowing by the respondents showed only reliable institutional sources were used to avail loans by the majority.For purpose of borrowing repayment of debt was recorded as the highest felt need requiring borrowings followed by shelter renovation activities and health care need. Regarding the confidence of repayment majority reported they were confident of repayment while borrowing the amount. But 270 of them had experienced instances of inability to repay on time. 276 respondents of them had felt mental stress due to non repayment of borrowed amount on time. Access to safe drinking water and the source for drinking water as recorded in the study had half of the respondents having access to safe drinking water in their house premises itself. Regarding the vulnerability status of the respondents it was seen that majority of them had faced a situation were they have been unemployed for a month or more. They took loan or lent out assets in the situation. Regarding alcoholism 120 of respondents agreed that the earning male member of the family was alcoholic. Control over earnings had majority satisfied with the expenditure pattern of the family. Regarding entrepreneurial culture 60 of respondents had a temporary job while 99 had permanent job. 75 had reported to go to job daily while 60 had job availability sometimes only. All respondents had reported that they think the work undertaken by them was respectable in society. According to perception of respondents, repayment of loan and not possessing own home were the major factors of poverty while risk factors were damaged house or having no own house. The next constraint was recorded for having no or only one regular employed person in the family. Poverty eradication index ranged from a minimum of 19.51 in all three districts to a maximum of 60.53 in Thiruvananthapuram and 65.76 in both Ernakulam and Malappuram .The mean index was 41.26 in Thiruvananthapuram, 43.92 in Ernakulam and 41.07 in Malappuram. Thus a wide variation in the extent of poverty eradication was shown .The activities will have to be strengthened further to ensure appreciable alleviation of poverty. Empowerment index recorded a minimum of 29.70 in all three districts to a maximum of 86.07 in Thiruvananthapuram and 77.68 in both Ernakulam and Malappuram .The mean index was 55.10 in Thiruvananthapuram, 53.03 in Ernakulam and 51.36 in Malappuram. Regarding relationship between poverty eradication index and empowerment index, all three districts showed significant relationship in this study.Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) test showed significant results for empowerment index. Inferences from categorization of groups in the districts based on group performance index were that medium level of group performance was shown by majority of groups. In depth sub sample analysis had the following limitations identified. For the group doing rice farming, the owners are reluctant to lease out every season and processing units and storage facilities were absent. The members of the computer units had to meet extra expenses of electricity bill and the rent for the building from the income. Delay in payment of works undertaken for public purposes was reported. Marketing is a difficult task for coconut oil and for pappad making units.Drudgery, improper risk management, improper auditing and absence of diversification of crops were also reported. Design of the action program was done with formulation of plan for vegetable cultivation with College of Agriculture,Vellayani as source to get timely information, inputs and technical support.Execution of action program was done and impact assessed by proper monitoring of the process, identifying technological constraints with its solutions. SWOT analysis of Kudumbasree program showed that the localised social upliftment measures by community based organization, enhanced participation through meetings at home and the facilitation of women to enter public life was the major strengths. Productive usage of loan amount through canalised allotment of resources and holistic identification of poor not based on income/consumption but based on risk factors of poverty were the major strengths of the programme. The weaknesses of the programme recorded were leadership being influenced by political interference leading to corruption in work culture and intra group conflicts have been reported to limit the success of certain enterprises especially incase of consumptive usage of credit in absence of proper supervision. Lacks of enthusiasm among young members, cases of late approval of projects or absence of skill development for increasing the market competency were noticed. The opportunities of Kudumbasree program were establishment of social, security network for destitute rehabilitation and to increase the level of participation of members. The preparation of micro plan using the risk indices and problem identification mechanism were also opportunity. Small enterprises can be used for diversification and modernisation of rural economy and skill up gradation of general poor population. The threats include absence of quality control for ensuring market competency, dissipating enthusiasm and lack of proper tie up with line departments .Lack of autonomy in policy formulation lead to micro plan being not given due consideration. Charge officers are not provided technical up gradation for supporting the enterprises and the products lacked local market demand. Tangible and intangible benefits identified in the study were extension of decentralization process to further grass root levels, enhanced female control over earnings, diversification and modernisation of rural economy, sustainable maintenance of Kerala model of development, dependable and trust worthy social network generated, and the reduction in social discrimination and social evils. At the level of implementation of Kudumbasree program benefits were enhanced production lending in the groups than consumption lending, non economic risk indices in identification of the beneficiaries, the multifaceted frame work to alleviate root causes of poverty , reduction in under employment and educated unemployment followed by the provision of separate administration over centrally sponsored programs . The benefits at beneficiary level included constituting a working group for poverty reduction and the habit of savings first and credit later aiding to self dependence. The existence of a group fund gave members experience in money management and trust in people ensure repayment. Also enhanced food security by undertaking rice farming, participatory need based decision making and the ability of NHGs to act as a forum to share concern were other benefits. The major constraints in planning level were panchayaths not creatively participating in project design and micro enterprise planning followed by lack of symbolic policy formulation from part of State Government. Regarding the implementation level the major constraint was recorded as no remuneration paid for the activities undertaken by ADS and CDS Secretaries is followed by the enterprises not being matched with market demands or incompatible to daily routine of members. Mixing up the poor and non- poor in groups was a sure path to failure. Also some beneficiaries sell the productive assets for immediate financial benefit which limits timely repayment. Suggestions on the basis of the study were that rejuvenation and intensification of the Kudumbashree need appraisals and campaigns to limit exploitation in a target oriented manner. Policy formulations from State Government for investment in social capital have to be given more priority; sales promotion must be undertaken widely assisted with innovative enterprise planning and implementation. Technical support for finance management and common supply of raw materials like Bamboos at reasonable cost should be ensured. The stationery supply for canteens can also be organised in common basis by using the wide network generated. The link agents between NHGs and CDS should be ensured proper payment. Sustainability measures including marketing outlets and reduction in drudgery, the schedule for loan recovery specific to enterprise according to the pattern of returns and prevention of sale of assets purchased must be ensured. Proper representation of general problems by consolidation and prioritisation of such ideas to micro plans should be undertaken. More profitable enterprises involving more members by sharing of experiences must be done. Incentives for timely repayment, proper guidance and conflict management cell should be ensured. Suggestions to improve functioning of agriculture oriented groups is to develop a regulated system to pass on specification of the orders to units, timely supply of quality inputs like raw materials through proper channels should be undertaken. Documentation of activities can organize the activities in a scientific manner. Interested members should be motivated by trainings. Small scale units of diverse products with market demand like medicinal plants, vermicomposting and mushroom culture should be organized widely. Proper grading, hygiene and attractive packing to ensure market competency should be done within the local infrastructure available.ThesisItem Open Access Village level livestock and poultry production under the industrialization scenario(Department of Livestock Production Management, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 2007) Rajaganapathy, V; KAU; Francis, XavierAn in depth assessment and analysis of two villages, one an industrial area and the other an agrarian hamlet, was taken up. The effect of industrialization and pollution in village level livestock and poultry production and toxic heavy metals content as an indicator of pollution in water, soil, fodder and in biological samples were studied. Based on the observation and scientific validations, changes in livestock farming system and methodologies to alleviate the extent of pollution were sorted out. This study was conducted in Plachimada village - industrial area - in Perumatty Panchayat and in Nallepilly village- control area in Nallepilly Panchayat in Chittoor taluk in Palakkad district. A detailed survey of the existing husbandry systems was done in the selected study area using a schedule. Collection of samples of water, soil, fodder and biological samples milk, meat, egg, blood and dung samples were collected and examined from both industrial and control area. The samples were analyzed for presence of heavy metals like copper, cadmium, lead and arsenic by using Atomic absorption spectrophotometer. A detailed survey was done among fifty farmers from the Plachimada (industrial area) and Nallepilly (control area) villages respectively. The farmers were interviewed with a schedule and the data was obtained. The socio-economic status of the farmers indicated that the middle aged persons were more involved in the agricultural and animal husbandry activities. Most of the farmers had an average monthly income per family of Rs. 2000 in the study area. Cultivation of crops and plantations were less in both industrial and control area. The study revealed that majority of the farmers possessed dairy cattle with major source of income from livestock farming in both these study areas. Economic viability of rearing cattle was better in control area than that of industrial area. Most of the farmers surveyed stayed very near to the industry in the industrial zone. The study revealed that nearness of the industry to the grazing lands may be affecting their livestock farming system. The presence of heavy metals cadmium and lead in drinking water and soil samples of industrial area was more than that of the control zone and the WHO (1995) recommendations. The presence of copper and cadmium in meat samples was higher whereas cadmium and lead in blood samples of the industrial area was found more than that of the control zone and the permitted levels as per the WHO recommendations. The level of copper, cadmium and lead in fodder, milk, egg and dung samples of the industrial area was found more than that of the control zone and the permitted levels as per the WHO recommendations. This study aimed also to find out the relationship between water, soil, plant and animal system. Correlation of fodder and blood heavy metals with other biological samples was done in industrial area. Fodder lead showed a highly significant correlation with milk lead content. Correlation between fodder arsenic and milk arsenic concentration was also significant. Correlation between fodder cadmium with blood cadmium was significant. Correlation was observed between fodder lead with dung lead values. Correlation existed between blood copper with dung copper at a significant level. Similarly correlation of fodder and blood heavy metals with other biological samples was done in control area also. Blood and fodder cadmium was significant and positively correlated. Correlation of fodder lead with milk and dung lead were significant. Fodder arsenic and milk arsenic were significantly correlated. In blood the copper content of milk and dung showed a positive significant correlation. The heavy metals lead, cadmium, arsenic and mercury from industrial pollution are of high environmental concern due to their toxicity even at low concentrations. These metals may persist in the system for several days due to cumulative nature and may cause severe health effects in man and animals. Bioaccumulation of toxic heavy metals, especially lead, cadmium and arsenic in milk, meat and in egg have evoked great concern during the recent years. Heavy metals contaminants may enter the animal system through pollution of air, water, soil, feed polluted by industrial sources. From the present study it was found that the industrial area had contaminated water, soil, and fodder under observation. The heavy metal contamination was from copper, cadmium and lead whereas arsenic was almost within the permissible limits. The biological samples milk, meat, egg, blood and dung collected from the industrial zone were also contaminated with copper, cadmium and lead when compared with the control area samples. The level of heavy metals in the biological samples of industrial area was above the WHO permissible limits. Arsenic was present within the maximum permissible level in all the biological samples. It is also concluded that industrialization may add pollutants to the area thereby causing an indirect effect on livestock production systems and in turn to the human beings. The following recommendations may be suggested. 1. Monitoring the level of pollution in water, soil, plants and fodder crops, animals and in man in industrial zones at regular intervals. 2. Treatment of waste water and other discharges/effluents from industries with implementation of strict rules and regulations 3. Safe disposal of the discharges, effluents and waste materials from the industries and factories. Efficient waste management to be adopted. 4. To create awareness among farming community to adopt better management practices. 5. Encouragement of organic farming. 6. Recommendation of rearing indigenous animals and adoption of Mixed farming - system to improve economic status of farmers. 7. Phytoremediation may be done to decontaminate soil and water to reduce the soil heavy metal content. 8. Identify and growing of trees/ plants to reduce the level of toxic elements from the industrial zones.ThesisItem Open Access In vitro multiplication and DNA fingerprinting of selected hybrids and their parents in anthurium andreanum linden(Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2007) Yasin Jeshima, K; KAU; Mayadevi, PAnthurium is the largest genus in the family Araceae, encompassing more than 800 species, native to tropical America, from Mexico, Costa Rica, Cuba to Brazil and Argentina. The spadix is composed of a multitude of flowers, which are perfect having two-carpelled ovary and four anthers. A few commercially grown plants are classified as "rat tail" anthuriums as their inflorescences have a long spadix and a small non-descript spathe. Anthuriums with colourful inflorescences have been grown for cut flowers. With the introduction of compact interspecific hybrids through breeding and the selection of somaclonal variants, the new commercially available types were developed. Propagation is not easy for anthuriums and is considered a long-term crop which will take long time for the propagator to multiply. In light of afore said views, an attempt was made to standardize in vitro multiplication and DNA fingerprinting of selected hybrids and their parents in Anthurium andreanum Linden. The explants after standardizing for the surface sterilization and survival were cultured on selected media with different hormone concentrations to get maximum callus induction. For callus induction the culture flasks were kept in dark at 25˚C and subcultured every third week. Calli were transferred to regeneration medium and embryogenic calli induction medium. Regenerants were selected and placed in rooting medium; further hardened and transferred to the field condition. Preconditioned embryos were suspended in calcium free half strength NN medium supplemented with 1.5 per cent sodium alginate and 0.5 M sucrose. This mixture was dispensed with a micropipette into 0.1 M calcium chloride. Twenty minutes after encapsulation beads were pre cultured on modified half strength NN liquid medium supplemented with 0.75 M sucrose and three per cent DMSO into 100 ml Erlenmeyer flasks for one day without agitation. Beads were then transferred to fresh medium of same composition and incubated in darkness at 4ºC for three days. Beads were desiccated in a sterile laminar air flow chamber. Dehydrated beads were transferred to 4 ml cryo vials and stored at – 80˚C. On rewarming over a water bath at 25˚C, the beads were transferred to culture medium for germination. Surface disinfection treatments were standardized for the different explants, irrespective of the explants and varieties and double sterilization was found to be effective. Among the explants, the highest number of sterile cultures was observed in double sterilization, followed by the treatment with 70 per cent Ethyl alcohol for 20 minutes. Majority of the contamination found in the cultures was due to the presence of systemic infection of Xanthomonas compestris pv dieffenbachiae. This directly influences the percentage of contamination occurred in the culturing condition and the size of explants which also play a major role in creating the bacterial contamination. Candle explants were found to exhibit more systemic infections than other explants and seed explants were found to be free from systemic infections. Leaf explants are highly vulnerable to exhibit systemic infections and are more sensitive; unable to recover even after treatments with antibiotics. The callus cultures exhibiting systemic infections can be recovered by kanamycin 50 mg per litre containing multiplication medium. In most studies of in vitro culture of anthurium, MS medium has been used. In the present study also, it was observed that Nitsch and Nitsch medium was better than MS medium for multiple shoot induction. Nitsch and Nitsch medium is especially suitable for morphogenesis, meristem culture and regeneration. As the genotype showed different nutrient requirements for their survival and growth, the present investigation was planned to standardize the media by screening with modified MS, half strength MS, modified NN and half strength NN medium. Modified NN with activated charcoal and coconut water showed better response. Half strength NN with coconut water and activated charcoal, modified MS with activated charcoal and coconut water and half strength MS activated charcoal and coconut water were also found to support the explants without hindering the survival. Addition of inositol and glycine along with folic acid was found to be essential but the presence of small amount was inefficient. In the present investigation no callus initiation was observed when inositol was reduced to half of the reported quantity. Various treatments were tried for callus multiplication. The maximum fresh weight of callus 4.2458 g was observed in PR X DT inoculated in NN medium with major nutrients at normal strength followed by 4.1325 g in OG X DT for the same composition in NN medium. From the economic point of view NN medium can be recommended for callus multiplication. Among the treatments, combination of 2, 4-D and zeatin was found to be the best. It stimulates callus formation and strongly antagonizes organized development. The low auxin requirement may be due to the high potency of the auxin which was used for callus initiation. The young developing leaf may be a rich source of endogenous auxins due to which lower exogenous application is required. Irrespective of the source of explant all the callus cultures were able to be converted into plantlets by redifferentiation. The number of days taken for regeneration ranges from 55.5 to 82. This variation is due to the varietal difference and difference in hormonal effect. Modified NN with activated charcoal and coconut water along with 22.2 μM BA, 11.42 μM IAA and 4.09 μM biotin was found to produce regenerants. Each genotype is varying with the response to change in media composition in producing somatic embryogenesis. The treatments with MS and modified MS media were found to be insignificant when compared with NN and modified NN media. Among these modified NN was found to be the best one. Within two weeks on embryo development medium, the globular embryos developed a bipolar shape. Embryos at this stage were comprised of cells larger than those at the globular stage. Bipolar embryos had an extended upper region that formed the cotyledon and the epicotyl, and a lower region that formed the radicle.The main difference between the mature embryos of monocotyledons in vitro and in vivo is the absence or presence of suspensor. The presence of single cotyledon which is the terminal structure and the shoot initials present at the sides or hidden creating a heart shape. When the cotyledon starts growing the embryo will have a single cotyledon at the terminal end which is some what cylindrical in shape. In anthurium tissue culture, no special rooting treatments were needed and the shoots developed in vitro were found to develop roots spontaneously even in the absence of additional growth hormones in the supporting medium. The spontaneous root formation was not due to the carry over effect of the hormones supplied in the previous cultures for shoot formation. Irrespective of the supporting medium the shoots were able to form roots even in sterile sand supplied with sterilized compost materials. For in vitro studies Completely Randomized Block Design (CRD) was followed for statistical analysis wherever necessary. Molecular characterization of twelve hybrids and their parents were carried out with RAPD using AP-PCR. Young leaf samples from each genotype were collected for DNA isolation.Young copper coloured leaf tissues were used immediately after collection for DNA extraction. Leaf samples were pre-chilled at -80ºC for half an hour with pestle and mortar and then pulverized in liquid nitrogen by rapid grinding to a fine powder.The frozen powder was used to extract the total genomic DNA using CTAB extraction buffer. The purity of the DNA was analysed by running in 0.8 per cent agarose gel with 1 X TAE buffer. The optimized PCR mixture with 50ng of template DNA for a final volume of 20μl was used in thermal cycling in a PCR machine. The amplified products were run in 1.6 per cent agarose gel with 1X TAE (Tris buffer, Glacial acetic acid and EDTA pH 8.0) buffer. A total of 114 AP-PCR bands were generated by the 25 primers, of which 74.56 per cent were polymorphic (88 bands) and 26 were monomorphic. Ten primers showed high level of polymorphism out of which seven were selected.Seven promising primers were identified for AP-PCR analysis based on performance in DNA amplification, production of highest number of polymorphic bands as well as intense bands and reproducibility viz. OPA 10, OPB15, OPA13, OPB20, OPB6, OPB8 and OPB18 primers were found to produce polymorphism in Anthurium andreanum Linden.A total of 50 scorable bands (average of 7.143 bands per primer were generated by the selected seven primers of which only 8 were monomorphic and the rest were polymorphic. The number of bands ranged form 4 to 11 with an average of 7.143 per primer. The reproducible bands were scored for their presence (1) or absence (0) for all the hybrids and parents. A genetic similarity matrix was constructed using Jaccards’s similarity co-efficient methods. From the cluster analysis based on the dendrogram, TR X MW was found to be extreamly different from the other accessions and its own parents showing the significance of hybridization. The hybrids like OO X KR, PR X DT, OG X DT, FK X LR and PR X MW are not closely related to either of their parents and hybrids were distinguished from others. Some hybrids like LJ X W and PR X MW; PR X LR and FK X DT shows 30 to 39 per cent similarity. This shows there is considerable variability among the genotypes selected and can be further utilized for crop improvement. Confirming that, they were quite different from the other hybrids and varieties. Pair wise genetic distances based on RAPD [(AP-PCR) (Nei and Li Genetic Distance GDNL)] genetic distance co-efficient values for twelve varieties and twelve hybrids ranged from 0.1935 to 0.7037 indicating the wider diversity. The AP-PCR profiles show the relatedness and diversity of the hybrids and varieties. The bands were found within 1.5kb from 100bp. Most of the bands were concentrated between 300bp and 1200bp.ThesisItem Open Access Identification of toxic fractions of Mimosa invisa (Anathottavadi) and its toxicity in rabbits(Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 2007) Usha, P T A; KAU; Gopakumar, NThe present study was undertaken to identify the toxic fraction of Mimosa invisa in rabbits and to assess to toxicity of Mimosa invisa fresh juice, cold alcoholic extract and various fractions of alcoholic extract utilizing rabbit as a model along with treatment study. The experiment was conducted in two phases. The first part of the study involved assessment of toxicity of fresh juice of Mimosa invisa (group II) and cold alcoholic extract (group Ill). Group I served as control. The preliminary tests were conducted to derive the toxic dose of fresh juice and alcoholic extract of Mimosa invisa. The toxic doses were 25 g/kg and 1 g/kg body weight for Mimosa invisa fresh juice and alcoholic extract respectively. The clinical symptoms, biochemical parameters and haemogram were observed to assess the toxicity. The serum ALT, AST and GGT levels showed significant increase in both the groups. The serum creatine kinase levels exhibited an increase followed by a decrease. There was a significant increase in serum creatinine and urea levels. There were no changes in serum total protein, albumin, globulin and albumin-globulin ratio. Significant decrease in VPRC, haemoglobin and RBC count could be noticed. The erythrocyte indices did not show any variations. The leucocytosis was observed in group II and III when compared to control (group I). Lymphocytosis with neutropenia were also observed in both the groups. The second phase of the study involved identification of toxic dose of each fraction of Mimosa invisa: The preliminary studies revealed that chloroform fraction (Fraction I) and water insoluble residue (fraction IV) were not toxic to rabbits while the fraction II (n-butanol fraction) and fraction III (aqueous fraction) were toxic to rabbits. Hence the two toxic fractions were pooled and used for further studies. It was found that 0.4 g/kg of pooled toxic fraction was toxic in rabbits. The toxicity was assessed by the evaluation of clinical symptoms, biochemical parameters and haemogram. The group V (pooled toxic fraction) showed inappetence, dullness, lethargy and reluctant to move. A significant increase in serum ALT, AST and GGT levels were observed. The serum ALP levels showed an increase followed by a decrease. The serum creatine kinase also showed similar increase followed by decrease. The creatinine and urea levels exhibited a continuous increase in group V. There were no changes in total protein, albumin, globulin and albumin-globulin ratio. The VPRC, RBC and haemoglobin showed significant decrease but there were no changes in erythrocyte indices. A significant leucocytosis was observed in group V. The differential leucocyte count showed lymphocytosis with neutropenia. The group VI (Half the toxic dose of pooled toxic fraction) failed to produce toxicity as evidenced by biochemical parameters and haemogram. The group VII (Double the toxic dose of pooled toxic fraction), all the animals died within 12-24 hours of administration of the dose. The group VIII animals were treated with a decoction prepared from equal quantities of Boerhvia diffusa, Hygrophila auriculata and Tribulus terrestris along with pooled toxic fraction of Mimosa invisa. The prominent symptom of inappetence was only for a short period of time (1-2 day). Then the animals started taking normal feed and water. The serum AL T, AST and GGT levels were significantly increased during the first five days, then the values returned to normal level. The serum creatine kinase and ALP levels did not show significant changes. The serum creatinine and urea levels showed significant increase followed by decrease. All the parameters showed significant improvement when compared with group V (pooled toxic fraction alone). There were no changes in serum protein, 'albumin, globulin and albumin-globulin ratio. The screening of alcoholic extract and various fractions revealed that the alcoholic extract n-butanol fraction and aqueous fraction contained steroids phenolic compounds, tannins, flavonoids, glycosides, diterpenes triterpenes and saponins. The chloroform fraction was positive for flavonoids only, whereas water insoluble fraction contained flavonoids and traces of tannins, triterpenes and saponins. From the results of the present study, it is concluded that the phytotoxin present in M invisa is nephrotoxic and hepatotoxic. The treatment schedule tried using a decoction of Boerhavia diffusa, Tribulus terrestris and Hygrophila auriculata could protect kidney and liver from the phytotoxin present in M invisa. Further study is needed to isolate the phytotoxin present in M invisa so that a specific antidote can be developed.ThesisItem Open Access In vitro propagation and rapid analysis of selected varieties of papaya (carica papaya L)(Department of Pomology and Floriculture, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2007) Bindhu, B; KAU; Jayachandran Nair, C SA study was carried out at the Department of Pomology and Floriculture, College of Agriculture, Vellayani during 2003-2006 for refining existing tissue culture protocol with respect to selected varieties and hybrids of papaya. Molecular characterization of papaya hybrids was also carried out using Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) technique. Papaya varieties and hybrids selected for the study were Pusa Nanha, CO-5, Washington, Pusa Nanha x Coorg Honeydew, Pusa Dwarf x Coorg Honeydew, Solo x Coorg Honeydew and Pusa Nanha x Solo. Apical buds and lateral buds from seedlings and mature plants were used as explant for in vitro propagation. The present study revealed that full strength MS medium supplemented with sucrose 30.00 g l-1 and agar 6.00 g l-1 under light condition produced highest shoot number and longest shoot in papaya varieties and hybrids. Application of BA 0.50 mg l-1 along with NAA 0.10 mgl-1 was found to be better for initial culture establishment and proliferation of papaya varieties and hybrids. Application of amino acid, arginine 50.00 mg l-1 resulted in highest shoot proliferation rate, while highest shoot length was obtained from arginine 100.00 mg l-1. Addition of activated charcoal 0.05 per cent and Cobalt chloride 10.00 mg l-1 increased shoot proliferation rate and shoot length in papaya varieties and hybrids. In vitro rooting was best in full strength MS medium supplemented with IBA 3.00 mg l-1, sucrose 30.00 g l-1and activated charcoal 0.05 per cent. Earliest planting out of in vitro propagated plants in potting media was carried out in papaya variety Pusa Nanha and late planting out in papaya hybrid Pusa Nanha x Coorg Honeydew. Highest plant height of in vitro propagated plants, at time of planting out in potting media was recorded by papaya variety Washington and lowest by papaya hybrid Pusa Nanha x Coorg Honeydew, while hsighest leaf number was reported from papaya variety CO-5 and lowest from Pusa Nanha. But longest root was noticed in papaya hybrid Pusa Nanha x Coorg Honeydew and shortest root from CO-5. No significant difference was noticed in the number of roots produced at the time of planting out in potting media. In vitro propagated plants of papaya had better establishment in the potting mixture containing sand : soil : cowdung (1 : 1 : 1) + Mycorrhiza (1.00 g plant -1). After field establishment, highest plant height and plant girth was noticed in papaya variety Washington and lowest in papaya hybrid Pusa Dwarf x Coorg Honeydew. While highest leaf number upto six weeks after planting was shown by papaya variety CO-5 and thereafter by papaya variety Washington. Lowest leaf number upto eight weeks after planting was noticed in papaya hybrid Solo x Coorg Honeydew and thereafter by papaya hybrid Pusa Dwarf x Coorg Honeydew. Early flowering was reported in papaya hybrid Pusa Dwarf x Coorg Honeydew and late flowering in papaya variety Washington. Most of the papaya varieties and hybrids selected for the present study exhibited only dioecious nature, but papaya hybrid Solo x Coorg Honeydew showed gynodioecious nature. Highest field establishment of in vitro propagated plants was shown by papaya varieties CO-5 and Washington and lowest by papaya hybrid Solo x Coorg Honeydew. Genomic DNA was successfully isolated from four papaya hybrids using CTAB method. All the ten primers (six primers from OPA and four primers from OPB series) yielded amplification products with isolated DNA. A total of 39 RAPDs were obtained from ten primers of which 36 bands were polymorphic. Primers OPA-03, OPA-04, OPA-12, OPB-04 and OPB-17 gave 40 scorable bands, with an average of 8.0 bands per primer. The largest cluster in dendrogram was formed by three hybrids - Pusa Nanha x Coorg Honeydew, Pusa Dwarf x Coorg Honeydew and Pusa Nanha x Solo. The second cluster contained only one hybrid - Solo x Coorg Honeydew. The minimum similarity coefficient detected in the present study was 0.389, suggesting a genetic differentiation among the papaya hybrids.ThesisItem Open Access Triallel analysis of yield and resistance to anthracnose in chilli ( Capsicum annuum L)(Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2007) Haridass, A; KAU; Manju, P. Chilli (Capsicum annuum L.) is an important spice cum vegetable crop grown commercially in India. It is an important constituent of many foods since it adds flavour, colour, vitamin C and pungency. Productivity of the crop remains low mostly due to destructive diseases, of which the most dreaded disease affecting chilli is anthracnose also known as dieback and fruit rot. The best method to tackle the disease is to grow resistant varieties and hence it is essential to breed high yielding anthracnose resistance varieties of chilli. Therefore an investigation was carried out at the Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, College of Agriculture, Vellayani to estimate the combining ability and heterosis through diallel pattern and combining ability analysis through general line effect of the first kind ((hi), general line effect of the second kind (gi), two line specific effect of the first kind (dij), two line specific effect of the second kind (sij/sji), three line specific effect (tijk), estimates of genetic components and heterosis by triallel analysis to assess the inheritance pattern of anthracnose resistance, yield and yield component traits, identify the order in which the parents should be combined to obtain maximum effect for a particular character and also to formulate an appropriate breeding programme for improving each trait. Six parents viz., Jwalamukhi (P1), Jwalasakhi (P2), Samkranthi local (P3), Vellayani Athulya (P4), Kidangoor local (P5) and Ujwala (P6) along with their 15 F1 hybrids, and their possible three way cross hybrids was evaluated during 2005-2007. Diallel analysis revealed that the magnitude of gca variance was higher than sca variance suggesting the predominance of additive gene action except for number of seeds per fruit, harvest index and vitamin C. On the basis of per se performance of the parents for different traits, P4 was superior with regard to average fruit weight, fruit length, fruit girth and hundred seed weight while P1 for fruit yield per plant and vitamin C. P6 showed high resistance to anthracnose with high enzymatic activity for anthracnose, phenol, peroxidase, polyphenol oxidase, phenylalanine ammonia lyase along with high capsaicin and oleoresin. The hybrid P1xP6 had highest per se performance for fruit yield per plant and number of fruits per plant, P2xP4 for fruit length, average fruit weight, fruit girth, number of seeds per fruit and hundred seed weight and P5xP6 for duration, incidence of anthracnose, disease intensity, biochemical characters, capsaicin and oleoresin. High values of gca effects were noticed for fruit yield per plant, number of fruits per plant and incidence of anthracnose at 45 DAT and 60 DAT. Highest sca effect was recorded for fruit yield per plant, number of fruits per plant and vitamin C. With respect to mean and general combining ability, P2 was superior for days to first flowering, average fruit weight, fruit girth, fruit yield per plant, hundred seed weight and harvest index while P6 for incidence of anthracnose, disease intensity and all the biochemical characters including capsaicin and oleoresin. Among the fifteen hybrids evaluated with respect to per se, standard heterosis and sca effects, P1xP6 was superior with regard to number of fruits per plant, fruit yield per plant, incidence of anthracnose, disease intensity, phenol, peroxidase, polyphenol oxidase, phenylalanine ammonia lyase, capsaicin and oleoresin. In triallel analysis, P4xP6xP1 had highest per se performance for fruit yield per plant, P1xP5xP4 for average fruit weight, fruit length, number of seeds per fruit while P5xP6xP4 had significant per se performance for incidence of anthracnose and high enzyme activity. P6 had the highest general line effect of the first kind (hi) for fruit yield per plant and number of fruits per plant while P1 for days to first flowering, plant height, average fruit weight, fruit length, fruit girth, harvest index and vitamin C. P4 had highest general line effect of the first kind for incidence of anthracnose, disease intensity and for all the enzyme activity. The general line effect of the second kind (gi) was highest in P1 for fruit yield per plant, number of fruits per plant, fruit girth, hundred seed weight and oleoresin while P5 for low incidence of anthracnose, disease intensity and high activity of the enzymes. P6 had highest effect for number of branches per plant, capsaicin, and vitamin C. The two line specific effect of the first kind (dij) was highest in P4xP5 for number of fruits per plant, fruit yield per plant and duration while P1xP6 for incidence of anthracnose, disease intensity and all the enzyme activities. P1 x P2 had highest two line specific effect of the second kind (sij) for fruit yield per plant and number of fruits per plant whereas P4xP6 for incidence of anthracnose, disease intensity, phenol, peroxidase, phenylalanine ammonia lyase and polyphenol oxidase. The two line specific effect of the second kind (sji) reciprocal effect was highest in P5xP4 for fruit yield per plant and average fruit weight while P2xP1 for incidence of anthracnose, disease intensity, phenol, polyphenol oxidase and phenylalanine ammonia lyase. P1xP2xP3 recorded high value of three line specific effect for fruit yield per plant and average fruit weight and P5xP6xP4 for incidence of anthracnose at 60 DAT, phenol, and polyphenol oxidase and phenylalanine ammonia lyase. The hybrid P4xP6xP1 had high relative heterosis and heterobeltiosis for fruit yield per plant. Among the biometrical traits, the relative heterosis was high for fruit yield per plant followed by harvest index and number of fruits per plant whereas heterobeltiosis had maximum per cent for harvest index followed by number of fruits per plant and fruit yield per plant. At 45 DAT the incidence of anthracnose had high relative heterosis and heterobeltiosis. The enzyme polyphenol oxidase had highest heterosis followed by capsaicin and oleoresin for both type of heterosis. From the present investigation several promising three way cross hybrids were obtained with regard to fruit yield, yield attributes and resistance to anthracnose. Some of the promising three way cross hybrids are Jwalamukhi x Kidangoor local x Jwalasakhi, Jwalamukhi x Ujwala x Vellayani Athulya, Jwalamukhi x Ujwala x Kidangoor local, Jwalasakhi x Vellayani Athulya x Kidangoor local, Samkranthi local x Vellayani Athulya x Kidangoor local, Vellayani Athulya x Kidangoor local x Samkranthi local, Vellayani Athulya x Ujwala x Jwalamukhi, and Kidangoor local x Ujwala x Jwalasakhi. These can be directly used as hybrids or can be subjected to selection of superior types in the segregating generation to obtain stable varieties. The estimation of genetic components revealed the predominance of dominance x dominance gene effect for fruit yield per plant, number of branches per plant, number of fruits per plant, average fruit weight, fruit length, fruit girth, harvest index and capsaicin while the remaining traits days to first flowering, plant height, number of seeds per fruit, hundred seed weight, incidence of anthracnose, enzyme activity, phenol, oleoresin and vitamin C had additive x dominance type of epistatic effect. Heterosis method of breeding could be followed for the improvement of the traits which had dominance x dominance type of epistatic effect whereas the traits with additive x dominance component could be improved thereby postponing selection to later segregating generations and following recurrent selection.ThesisItem Open Access Socio-technical system analysis of tribal and settler farmers in the western ghat regions of wayanad district in Kerala(Department Of Agricultural Extension, College Of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2007) Geetha Nath, G; KAU; Kumari Sushama, N PAgriculture cannot be sustainable unless it is integrated into the existing social systems. Furthermore, it must enhance social justice. Social integration means that the farmers must accept the technology. Optimum adoption of agricultural production innovations is achieved only when a farmer is persuaded to accept a technical innovation, which for him is technically sound, economically feasible, physically possible and politically and socially compatible. Research studies exploring the socio-technical system aspects of agricultural technology generation and diffusion among the diverse tribal and settler farmers in ecologically sensitive locations like Wayanad district will help in envisioning sustainable developmental interventions. It is in this background, the present investigation has been designed to analyse and compare the socio-technical system determinants, to study the cropping pattern and farming systems of the tribal and settler areas, to study the differential diffusion of agricultural innovations among the tribal and settler farmers and to construct a socio-technical feasibility index to evaluate the agricultural innovations among tribal and settler farmers. The study was carried out in Wayanad district, as this district has the maximum population of tribals and settlers. Six panchayats having the maximum tribal populations from the three blocks of Wayanad were taken. From each panchayat, 30 tribal and 30 settler farmers were selected randomly, making the total sample size of 360 respondents. An index for measuring the socio-technical feasibility of agricultural innovations was developed for the study taking into consideration the socio- technical determinants and adoption variables. In addition to the index, the differential diffusion of agricultural innovations among tribal and settler farmers, the personal, socio-psychological, economic variables and constraints experienced by the tribal and settlers farmers were also studied. Regarding the distribution of the tribal and settler farmers, with respect to some variables like education, family education status, annual income, exposure to mass media, risk preference, achievement motivation, self confidence, rational orientation, information source utilization, progressiveness and cosmopoliteness the settlers belonged to the high category, whereas in the case of family size, dependency, value orientation and fatalism the tribals belonged to the high category. Still in the case of some variables like farming experience, economic motivation, credit orientation and attitude towards development programmes, there was not any significant difference between the tribals and settlers. The predominant crops in Wayanad are paddy, coffee, banana, ginger, pepper and arecanut. There was also cultivation of newly introduced crops like vanilla, banana, cardamom, coconut etc. present in small numbers. Majority of the tribals in Wayanad are agricultural labourers having no cultivable land and no control over land resources. The crops they cultivated were also the traditional ones. So the favoured combinations seen among the tribals were limited to the traditional crops namely paddy, coffee, pepper and banana. A shift in favour of the newly introduced crops like vanilla, cardamom, arecanut, banana etc. were seen among the settlers. Settlers had more land compared to the tribals and they were also in favour of new crops or cash crops along with the traditional ones. The comparison of the tribals and settlers, in the three blocks with respect to the selected variables showed that significant difference in almost all the variables except age, type of family, family size, self confidence, cosmopoliteness and attitude towards development. A comparative analysis of the three blocks revealed that the differential diffusion was higher in settlers as compared to the tribals of Wayanad. Tribals did not have access to the new technologies and in some cases where there was access, the technology did not suit their existing conditions. The settlers, on the other hand, if they practised new technologies, there were problems with the social and technical determinants, which affected the diffusion. Evaluation of agricultural innovations using the socio-technical feasibility index showed significant difference between the two major categories, i.e, tribals and settlers. Among tribals also, there was significant difference among the three blocks selected for the study. Kalpetta and Mananthavady showed significant difference among the tribals with regard to the index values. Similar was the case of Mananthavady and Sulthan Bathery. But with respect to CD values of Kalpetta and Sulthan Bathery, there was not much difference. Whereas in the case of settlers, there was not much difference among the settlers from among the three blocks of the district. Significant difference was observed between tribal and settler farmers, in which the tribals were much backward in the case of development. The study indicated the need for evolving a new strategy for solving the problems in technology generation and its transfer at the field level. Only 30 per cent of the technology generated can be used by the farmers. This shows the non-feasibility of the technologies with respect to the social and technical determinants such as profitability, acceptability, complexity, sustainability etc. These social and technical factors, which are particular for each system, should be taken into consideration while generating and transferring technologies further.ThesisItem Open Access Comparative evaluation of porcine production performance in terminally sired and purebred progenies under different management conditions(Department of Livestock Production Management, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 2007) Murugan, M; KAU; Joseph, MathewA study was conducted to evaluate the production performance of terminally sired and purebred progenies under different management conditions. Twenty gilts were selected from Large White Yorkshire and also each combination of Large White Yorkshire x Landrace, Landrace x Desi and Large White Yorkshire x Desi . After attaining maturity, they were bred to terminal sire (Duroc). Large White Yorkshire was maintained as pure line. Litter performance of LWY and three breed combinations viz., D x (LWY x LR), D x (LR x Desi) and D x (LWY x Desi) were comparatively evaluated. Twenty four weaned piglets were selected at random from each genetic combination and they were divided into four groups having six animals in each group. Piglets T1 were fed with concentrate feed and T2, T3 and T4 from each genetic group were fed with left over food from hotels, restaurants, slaughter house waste and waste available from agricultural fields. In addition to this, T3 group were supplemented with inorganic minerals and T4 group were supplemented with organic minerals @ one per cent level on dry matter basis from third month to ten months of age. The crossbreds viz., D x (LWY x Desi) and D x (LR x Desi) had highly significant (P<0.01) difference in litter size at birth, litter weight at birth, birth weight, litter size at weaning, litter weight at weaning and weaning weight compared to LWY and D x (LWY x LR) pigs. There was no significant difference between LWY and D x (LWY x LR) ; D x (LWY x Desi) and D x (LR x Desi) pigs in all these litter traits. There were no significant differences (P>0.05) in maximum and minimum temperature and relative humidity between farm and field. There was no significant difference (P>0.05) in mean rectal temperature, pulse and respiration rate between treatments and genetic groups. Significant difference (P<0.01) were observed between morning and afternoon pulse and respiratory rates irrespective of treatment and genetic groups. At the time of feeding, majority of the pigs in different treatments and genetic groups showed eating greedily with drooling of saliva and ear biting, belly nosing and tail biting very frequently. Quantity of faeces voided had a highly significant (P<0.01) difference between treatment in all four genetic groups. LWY pigs voided significantly lesser quantity of faeces than other genetic groups within the treatment. Frequency of defaecation had no significant difference, between treatments and genetic groups. There were no significant differences (P>0.05) in the faecal cortisol level between the treatments and genetic groups of pigs. The proximate composition (percentage) of pooled swill feed samples are comparable to farm concentrate except ether extract (24.56; 6.05 and 4.13) which was very higher in swill feed. Total ash content was higher in the farm concentrate (10.91, 10.13; 6.61). Availability of minerals was higher in inorganic form compared to organic form. Mineral assay revealed that chicken waste showed higher levels of minerals followed by hotel waste and vegetable waste. There was no significant difference between genetic groups within the treatment in serum mineral concentration. The feeding system had highly significant (P<0.01) effect on the mineral concentration. It was highest in T4 followed by T3 and T1 and least in T2. It was comparable between T3 and T2. There was no significant difference in monthly body weights (kg), body measurements viz., body length, girth and height (cm), average daily weight gain and average daily feed intake (g) of pigs between concentrate (T1) and swill feeding (T2). T4 significantly (P<0.01) better than other treatment groups. T3 was significantly (P<0.01) better than T2 and T1. Crossbred pigs had significantly (P<0.01) higher monthly body weight, linear body measurements, average daily weight gain and average daily feed intake than LWY pigs within the treatment. Among the three crossbreds there was no significant difference observed in monthly body weight, linear body measurements, average daily gain and average daily feed intake except in concentrate feeding. In concentrate feeding, D x (LWY x Desi) crossbred consumed significantly (P<0.01) less feed than the other crossbred pigs. There was significant (P<0.01) difference in feed efficiency between T1 and T2. No significant difference was observed between T2, T3 and T4. There was no significant difference between LWY and crossbred pigs within the treatment. T4 attained significantly (P<0.01) higher slaughter weight (kg), hot carcass weight (kg) and carcass length (cm) than the other treatment groups. T3 group attained significantly (P<0.01) higher slaughter weight, hot carcass weight and carcass length than the T2 and T1 treatment groups. No significant difference between T1 and T2 was noticed. T1 had significantly (P<0.01) higher dressing percentage than other treatment groups. T1 had significantly (P<0.01) lesser back fat thickness. There was no significant difference between T2, T3 and T4 in dressing percentage and back fat thickness. T2 had significantly (P<0.01) lesser loin eye area and meat-bone ratio than other treatment groups and there was no significant difference between T1 and T3 and T4. Gut weight was significantly (P<0.01) lesser in T1 than other treatment groups. There was no significant difference between T2, T3 and T4. There was significant (P<0.01) difference between LWY and crossbreds in terms of slaughter weight, hot carcass weight, carcass length, back fat thickness and loin eye area, within the treatment. There was no significant difference noticed between dressing percentage, meat-bone ratio and gut weight within the treatment. Cost of production per kg live weight on feed basis was high in T1 followed by T4, T3 and T2. It was inferred that swill feed supplemented with minerals can increase the profit margin provided a cheaper substitute for the organic minerals presently available in the market is absolutely essential for the field fattener pig production. Swill feed was found to be equally effective compared to concentrate feed in promoting growth of the fattener pig production existing under field conditions. Growth performance and carcass characteristics can be improved by supplementation of minerals in the diet of fattener pigs. Crossbred pigs excelled over pure LWY in terms of post weaning growth performance and carcass characteristics under terminally sired pigs. The crossbreds viz., D x (LR x Desi) and D x (LWY x Desi) had better litter performance than D x (LWY x LR) and LWY pigs. Considering both litter performance and post weaning growth performance, the recommendation is that D x (LR x Desi) and D x (LWY x Desi) crossbreds are best suited for the field fattener pig production in the hot-humid climatic conditions.ThesisItem Open Access Soil and crop management for organic carbon sequestration in a coconut based cropping system(Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2007) Sudha, B; KAU; Annamma, George (GuideI)Soil, the soul of infinite life, despite being the most basic of all natural resources is severely neglected these days. Quality of soil is determined much by the soil organic matter (SOM) content and hence SOM is regarded as the foundation of sustainable agriculture. The lesser addition of carbonaceous organic inputs to soil coupled with oxidative losses associated with tillage are the major reasons for the loss of SOM and hence organic carbon from cultivated soils. The oxidative losses of SOM contributes to release of carbon dioxide, the major greenhouse gas and aggravate the phenomenon of global warming. On the other hand, maintaining adequate carbon levels in soil by means of enriching SOM is important as carbon supports soil microbes by providing energy for their activities. Carbon sequestration is a management strategy which serves the twin purposes of storage of carbon in soil sinks preventing it’s loss as carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Based on this,the present study was planned with the objective of developing a suitable soil and crop management practice for improving the soil organic carbon content through carbon sequestration in a coconut based cropping system. The study intended to evaluate the effect of the management practices on soil properties, crop growth and yield and to work out the economics of the system. The study was carried out in two experiments. Among the various management options to conserve and sequester carbon in agricultural soils cropping system approach, residue management and tillage holds much significance and were tried in Experiment I entitled “Influence of crops and cultivation practices on soil organic carbon enrichment and crop performance”. This experiment involved three coconut based cropping systems viz. coconut – banana (s1), coconut- maize (s2), and coconut- pineapple (s3). Management of residue was attempted as surface mulch (m1) and soil incorporation (m2) so as to assess their varying impact on carbon sequestration. Conventional tillage operations (t1) ensuring more soil aeration to enhance SOM decomposition was compared with reduced till method (t2). Altogether there were 12 + 1 (coconut alone as control) treatment combinations replicated thrice in factorial randomized block design. Perusal of the results indicated positive influence on most of the soil properties from the initial to the final stage of the experiment with treatments. Coconut- pineapple systems where pineapple residue was recycled, surface mulching of residues and reduced tillage contributed to significant build up of organic carbon and organic matter in the upper soil layer by the end of second year in comparison to other treatments. Significant increase in the enzymatic status of soil for soil enzymes dehydrogenase, phosphatase, urease, cellulase and protease noticed under these treatments is attributed to the maintanance of more SOM . These treatments also maintained higher humic acid status, available phosphorus, available potassium and cation exchange capacity at the final stage of the experiment. With surface mulching and reduced tillage, there was improvement in the aggregate stability of soil which resulted in favourable decrease of bulk density. Under surface mulching, coconut – pineapple and coconut – banana systems recorded higher water holding capacity. The fulvic acid content of soil was more with coconut – pineapple system and reduced tillage. The surface mulched plots maintained higher humic acid : fulvic acid ratios. The total and available nitrogen status of soil was found higher and comparable under coconut – banana and coconut – pineapple systems. With surface mulching and reduced tillage in coconut – banana systems, more number of suckers and higher biomass of banana resulted. For pineapple, these treatments effected in better plant height, plant spread, reduction in the number of days to flowering, increased fruit girth and fruit yield. For first and second crop of maize, higher grain yield resulted from surface mulching. The coconut yield was not significantly influenced by treatments at the end of the study. The Benefit : Cost ratio revealed that coconut – pineapple systems, surface mulching and reduced till were much economical when compared to other treatments. Experiment II on “Carbon dynamics of organic residues” was carried out in microplots by studying the litter decomposition pattern for the three type of residues – maize (r1), banana (r2) and pineapple (r3), which were used in Experiment I. The residues were maintained in plots either as surface mulch (m1)or incorporation (m2). Control plots also were maintained without mulching. 6+1 (control) treatments were replicated thrice in factorial randomized block design. At the end of the study after one year time, it was noticed that maize residue decomposed almost completely whereas pineapple residue the least. With progress of decomposition, there was a decline in the percentage residue constituents except for lignin and ash. Higher status of soil organic carbon, soil organic matter and soil enzymes like dehydrogenase, urease and phosphatase were observed in surface mulched pineapple plots. The availability of nitrogen in soil was significantly high for maize residue plots by six months of time but by the time of one year, pineapple residue added plots had significantly higher nitrogen status. The results of the investigation reveals that pineapple residue with high lignin content and hence slow decomposition rates can enrich the organic matter status of soil even one year after it’s application especially when used as surface mulch. Coconut – pineapple cropping systems can be encouraged with surface mulching of residue and reduced till practices so as to enrich SOM and SOC for improved soil quality and to reap better profits.
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