Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur

The history of agricultural education in Kerala can be traced back to the year 1896 when a scheme was evolved in the erstwhile Travancore State to train a few young men in scientific agriculture at the Demonstration Farm, Karamana, Thiruvananthapuram, presently, the Cropping Systems Research Centre under Kerala Agricultural University. Agriculture was introduced as an optional subject in the middle school classes in the State in 1922 when an Agricultural Middle School was started at Aluva, Ernakulam District. The popularity and usefulness of this school led to the starting of similar institutions at Kottarakkara and Konni in 1928 and 1931 respectively. Agriculture was later introduced as an optional subject for Intermediate Course in 1953. In 1955, the erstwhile Government of Travancore-Cochin started the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, Thiruvananthapuram and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences at Mannuthy, Thrissur for imparting higher education in agricultural and veterinary sciences, respectively. These institutions were brought under the direct administrative control of the Department of Agriculture and the Department of Animal Husbandry, respectively. With the formation of Kerala State in 1956, these two colleges were affiliated to the University of Kerala. The post-graduate programmes leading to M.Sc. (Ag), M.V.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees were started in 1961, 1962 and 1965 respectively. On the recommendation of the Second National Education Commission (1964-66) headed by Dr. D.S. Kothari, the then Chairman of the University Grants Commission, one Agricultural University in each State was established. The State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) were established in India as an integral part of the National Agricultural Research System to give the much needed impetus to Agriculture Education and Research in the Country. As a result the Kerala Agricultural University (KAU) was established on 24th February 1971 by virtue of the Act 33 of 1971 and started functioning on 1st February 1972. The Kerala Agricultural University is the 15th in the series of the SAUs. In accordance with the provisions of KAU Act of 1971, the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, were brought under the Kerala Agricultural University. In addition, twenty one agricultural and animal husbandry research stations were also transferred to the KAU for taking up research and extension programmes on various crops, animals, birds, etc. During 2011, Kerala Agricultural University was trifurcated into Kerala Veterinary and Animal Sciences University (KVASU), Kerala University of Fisheries and Ocean Studies (KUFOS) and Kerala Agricultural University (KAU). Now the University has seven colleges (four Agriculture, one Agricultural Engineering, one Forestry, one Co-operation Banking & Management), six RARSs, seven KVKs, 15 Research Stations and 16 Research and Extension Units under the faculties of Agriculture, Agricultural Engineering and Forestry. In addition, one Academy on Climate Change Adaptation and one Institute of Agricultural Technology offering M.Sc. (Integrated) Climate Change Adaptation and Diploma in Agricultural Sciences respectively are also functioning in Kerala Agricultural University.

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Open Access
Management of banana pseudostem weevil odoiporus longicollis oliv.using entomopathogenic fungi
(Department of Agricultural Entomology, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2005) Sahi Beegum, M K; KAU; Anitha, N
Investigation on “Management of banana pseudostem weevil, Odoiporus longicollis Oliv. using entomopathogenic fungi” was carried out in the Department of Agricultural Entomology, College of Agriculture, Vellayani. The study was conducted to screen four entomopathogenic fungi, to evaluate their biocontrol potential and to standardize the effective dose and method of application for the management of the banana pseudostem weevil. Four entomopathogenic fungi viz., Metarhizium anisopliae, Beauveria bassiana, Paecilomyces lilacinus and Nomuraea rileyi were tested against O. longicollis. Among them M. anisopliae and B. bassiana were found to infect O. longicollis grubs. Susceptibility of different stages of grubs to fungal infection was tested by using first, second, third, fourth and fifth instar grubs of O. longicollis and the results revealed that first and second instar grubs were more susceptible to fungal infection. Determination of effective dose of fungi against second instar grubs of O. longicollis was carried out by spraying the grubs with different concentrations of M. anisopliae and B. bassiana. The LC50 values of M. anisopliae and B. bassiana were 3.9 x 106 spores ml-1 and 1.6 x 105 spores ml-1 respectively. Evaluation of six naturally available solid media viz., rice bran, wheat bran, guinea grass, gingelly oil cake, coir pith, and neem cake were carried out for mass multiplication of M. anisopliae and B. bassiana. The results revealed that both rice bran and wheat bran were suitable for the mass multiplication of these fungi. The spore production was 9.26 x 106 spores ml-1 and 8.71 x 106 spores ml-1 respectively for M. anisopliae on first week after inoculation. For B. bassiana, the spore count was 503.42 x 106 spores ml-1 and 320.32 x 106 spores ml-1 respectively on first week after inoculation. Among the liquid media tried, coconut water and rice bran extract produced maximum mycelial growth and sporulation of fungi. For M. anisopliae the spore count was 7.77 x 107 spores ml-1 and 0.49 x 107 spores ml-1 respectively. B. bassiana recorded 440.03 x 106 spores ml-1 and 232.26 x 106 spores ml-1 respectively. M. anisopliae and B. bassiana grown in rice bran and wheat bran recorded maximum virulence on two weeks after storage and decreased thereafter. However, coconut water and rice bran extract showed maximum virulence on first week after storage and then found decreasing. Studies conducted to evaluate the compatibility of fungi with NeemAzal 0.4 per cent, chlorpyriphos 0.03 per cent, copper oxychloride 0.4 per cent and mancozeb 0.3 per cent revealed that all the pesticides tested inhibited the growth of M. anisopliae and B. bassiana. But the per cent inhibition was least in the case of NeemAzal 0.4 per cent. Field experiments were conducted with M. anisopliae and B. bassiana with chlorpyriphos (0.03 per cent) and NeemAzal (0.4 per cent) as checks. The plants were artificially infested with known number of grubs. Two experiments were conducted, one with prophylactic treatments and the other with curative treatments. Three application methods viz., leaf axil filling of spore suspension of M. anisopliae and B. bassiana, leaf axil filling of fungi in rice bran and stem injection of spore suspension were tested. Among these treatments leaf axil filling of B. bassiana spore suspension at 1.8 x 107 ml-1 as prophylactic treatment was most effective which gave 52.42 per cent mortality of grubs.
Open Access
Financing of fruit and vegetable processing industry in Thrissur district
(Department of Rural Banking and Financial Management, College of Co-operation, Banking and Management, Vellanikkara, 2004) Bindumol, R; KAU; Padmini, E V K
The study entitled “Financing of Fruit and Vegetable Processing Industry in Thrissur District” was conducted with the following objectives: 1) to examine the extent and pattern of institutional finance to the fruit and vegetable processing units and 2) to identify the factors influencing the repayment behaviour of the selected units. The study was conducted among ten fruit and vegetable processing units out of the 32 units in Thrissur District for a period of five years from 1998 to 2002 using mainly primary data collected with a pre-tested structured schedule. Secondary data were also used from the books and accounts of the units and banks. The study revealed that a substantial percent of the sample units are tiny or small which are organized in the form of sole proprietorship. Majority of the sample firms were established after 1960 because of the increased demand for processed products that too by Christian entrepreneurs. Even though all the units are registered as per the norms of Food Products Order, 1955, majority of the units in fruits and vegetable processing industry in Kerala are outside the purview of Factories Act, 1948. The study also revealed that most of the small-scale units were started with a low fixed capital investment. The share of owned funds in the total capital at the time of establishment was high compared to borrowings, as the units were small and started by the entrepreneurs with sound financial status. The units mainly depend on Public Sector Commercial Banks for their working capital. Study also revealed that the major problem faced by the units is the inadequacy of working capital during the season. More than 50 percent of the working capital requirement of the units is financed by the public sector commercial banks and the rest are met with their own funds. The share of fixed capital in the total capital is higher when compared with working capital. The large-scale units are capital intensive as the share of fixed capital is more. The analysis of the financing pattern revealed that the highest share of finance was from borrowed funds. Building, plant and machinery contribute major share of the fixed capital while the stock of raw materials occupy highest share in working capital. The lower share of sundry debtors of the units denotes that credit sale is less in the industry. The analysis of the cost structure revealed that all the major cost items like cost of fresh fruits, fruit juice concentrates, chemicals and cost of other inputs have increased during the study period. The share of vegetable cost is high in units producing only pickles. The percentage increase in sales is less compared to cost, which adversely affected the profit of the units. The value added of the industry has increased by 27 percent during the study period. The industry depends heavily on local market for the sales of their product, as their promotional activities and marketing are not adequate. To supplement the analysis with the absolute values, ratios are worked out classified into three categories namely structural ratios, activity ratios and financial ratios. Structural ratios reassured the earlier arguments. Activity ratios and profitability ratios established that the dependence on debt is minimum and institutional finance has nothing to do only little. The potential for institutional finance depends on to what extent the industry can diversify and also to what extent the banking agencies can come forward to provide financial assistance for venture financing.
Open Access
Major spiders in vegetable ecosystem and their predatory potential
(Department of Agricultural Entomology, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2005) Manu Mani, P; KAU; Hebsi Bai
Spider faunistic survey conducted in okra, brinjal, cowpea, bittergourd and amaranthus fields in Kalliyoor panchayat of Thiruvananthapuram district during the summer of 2004, revealed the prevalence of high density and diversity of spiders in the vegetable ecosystem. Hunting spiders were dominant in all the vegetable plots. Thirty species of spiders distributed in nine families were recorded with the number of species in each vegetable field ranging from 10 to17. Among the thirty species, 16 species were commonly seen in the different vegetable fields while 14 species were seen exclusively associated with a particular vegetable. Araneidae with ten species was the most represented family in the vegetable fields followed by Oxyopidae and Salticidae. The other families observed were Miturgidae, Thomisidae, Tetragnathidae, Corinnidae, Lycosidae and Clubionidae. Most of the spiders appeared during the vegetative and flowering stages of the crop. Few spiders were recorded in the early stage of the crops. Four spiders viz., O. javanus, C. danieli, N. mukerjei and T. mandibulata were dominant in all the vegetable plots among which O. javanus and C. danieli predominated. Studies on the seasonal influence showed no significant difference in the abundance of the spiders during summer and rainy seasons. Rather, the growth stages of the crops significantly influenced the build up of the spider population with higher population being observed during the reproductive phase. In general, the spiders preferred soft bodied insects like the hemipterans, lepidopterans, dipterans and coleopterans (eggs and grubs) for predation. While the spiders did not show any significant preference for the different hemipteran prey in a mixed diet, significant difference was shown for the different lepidopteran pests. O. javanus had the maximum preference for the lepidopteran pests Chemical insecticides were more toxic to the spiders than botanicals when tested at their recommended doses. Among the chemical insecticides, dimethoate 0.05 per cent, carbaryl 0.2 per cent and malathion 0.1 per cent were highly toxic. Even at different doses the insecticides were toxic to the spiders. Quinalphos 0.05 per cent and imidacloprid were less toxic. Between the two methods of application, topical application of insecticides was more detrimental to the spiders than release on treated plants. Among the spiders, T. mandibulata was more susceptible to the insecticides followed by C. danieli. O. javanus and N. mukerjei were less sensitive. While the fungal pathogens, M. anisopliae, P. lilacinus and Bt were safe to the spiders. F. pallidoroseum, Fusarium sp. and B. bassiana were pathogenic. Based on the results of the study, conservation of the spiders characteristic of the vegetable ecosystem would be a practical and ecologically and economically viable approach for pest suppression in vegetables. When there is a spurt in pest ravage, the protection afforded by the predator could be supplemented with judicious use of “spider friendly” insecticides.
Open Access
Wood property profile of rosewood (dalbergia latifolia roxb.) ceylon rosewood (albizia odoratissima (Linn.F) Benth.) and raintree(Samanea saman (jacq.) Merr.)
(Department of Tree Physiology and Breeding,College of forestry, Vellanikkara, 2005) Vinay Kumar, Sahu; KAU; Gopakumar, S
In the state of Kerala, heartwoods of lesser known timber species viz., Albizia odoratissima (Ceylon rosewood) and Samanea saman (rain tree) are allegedly being used as “substitutes” and “adulterants” for making furniture of Dalbergia. latifolia (Indian rosewood) mainly due to their similar wood colour. As this spurious practice has serious implication in timber trade, a study was undertaken to profile the selected wood properties of all these three species to highlight their similarities and differences. The study involved analyzing selected physical, mechanical, anatomical and biochemical properties of A. odoratissima and S. saman and comparing it with the wood properties of D. latifolia as available from relevant literatures. Variations of higher magnitude were noted between the three species for some wood properties, and with respect to few other properties, the differences were lesser. Significant variations were also observed between tissue types viz., sapwood and heartwood for some wood properties. Heartwood tissue types of S. saman and D. latifolia displayed high calorific value, where as, for A. odoratissima both tissue types (sapwood and heartwood) exhibited medium calorific value. The physical properties of the heartwood of A. odoratissima were observed to be higher than that of D. latifolia. S. saman possessed lower values for the physical properties as compared to D. latifolia. Basic specific gravity, radial and volumetric shrinkages (green to oven dry) were considerably different for all the three species. Generally, for both Ceylon rosewood and rain tree tangential shrinkage was higher than radial shrinkage for both the tissue types. Mechanical properties of A. odoratissima were superior to D. latifolia and S. saman, except modulus of elasticity in compression parallel to grain. On the other hand mechanical properties of S. saman were closer to D. latifolia. Measure of fibre stress at limit of proportionality and modulus of elasticity in static bending and modulus of elasticity in compression parallel to grain are considerably different for the three species. In A. odoratissima and S. saman, the mechanical properties of sapwoods varied non significantly with the strength properties of heartwoods. S. saman exhibited superior strength properties for heartwood over its sapwood. Vessel diameter, distribution of parenchyma and ray height can be used to differentiate the three species. In all the species, along the radial axis from pith towards periphery, the vessel diameter, ray height, ray width increased along the region of heart wood. Likewise, ray frequency, and vessel frequency decreased along radial axis in heartwood region. Average vessel diameter, ray height and ray width of sapwoods were greater than that of the heartwoods. Lignin, cellulose and holocellulose percent of A. odoratissima and S. saman were significantly greater than D. latifolia. Higher lignin, cellulose and holocellulose content are responsible for the higher strength properties of A. odoratissima. Methanol-acetone extracts of heartwood of D. latifolia exhibits specific peak wavelengths under spectrometric analysis, which are not found in the other two species. Phenolic compounds were observed to influence some of the physical properties.
Open Access
Morphological and anatomical properties of teak seedlings as influenced by nursery techniques
(Department of Tree Physiology and Breeding, College of Forestry,Vellanikkara, 2004) Girija Pushpom, R P; KAU; Anoop, E V
An experiment was carried out at College of Forestry, Kerala Agricultural University, Vellanikkara with the objective to evaluate the best nutrient levels and sowing treatments required for the production of good quality stumps based on anatomical properties of the seedlings with particular reference to wood formation due to cambial activity. The different nutrient and sowing methods were randomly allocated following completely randomized design. From the experiment, it was found that the best nutrient and sowing method combinations were N2S3 (cowdung 0.4 kg/rrr' and neem cake 0.2 kg/rn ' with spacing of 12 cm x 12 cm between seeds). In terms of biometric characters and biomass characteristics of seedlings it was also found that in quick growing seedlings, vessel diameter was large and vessel frequency was less. Collar girth was positively related with ring width and negative related with vessel frequency. Comparing the performance of nursery raised seedlings with root trainer raised seedlings it was found that the growth characteristics as well as the anatomical properties were inferior for root trainer raised seedlings. In the present study it was found that the best quality teak stumps could be produced by intensive cultural practices. Intensive management of nursery seedlings could produce VlgOurOUS seedlings and thereby it could produce good quality stumps in less time. Results of the present study showed that traditional system of production of teak stumps were efficient By imposing superior nutrient and sowing methods good quality, vigorous stumps can be produced to meet the immediate plantation requirements within a short period.
Open Access
Major spiders in vegetable ecosystem and their predatory potential
(Department of Agricultural Entomology, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2005) Manu Mani, P; KAU; Hebsi, Bai
Spider faunistic survey conducted in okra, brinjal, cowpea, bittergourd and amaranthus fields in Kalliyoor panchayat of Thiruvananthapuram district during the summer of 2004, revealed the prevalence of high density and diversity of spiders in the vegetable ecosystem. Hunting spiders were dominant in all the vegetable plots. Thirty species of spiders distributed in nine families were recorded with the number of species in each vegetable field ranging from 10 to17. Among the thirty species, 16 species were commonly seen in the different vegetable fields while 14 species were seen exclusively associated with a particular vegetable. Araneidae with ten species was the most represented family in the vegetable fields followed by Oxyopidae and Salticidae. The other families observed were Miturgidae, Thomisidae, Tetragnathidae, Corinnidae, Lycosidae and Clubionidae. Most of the spiders appeared during the vegetative and flowering stages of the crop. Few spiders were recorded in the early stage of the crops. Four spiders viz., O. javanus, C. danieli, N. mukerjei and T. mandibulata were dominant in all the vegetable plots among which O. javanus and C. danieli predominated. Studies on the seasonal influence showed no significant difference in the abundance of the spiders during summer and rainy seasons. Rather, the growth stages of the crops significantly influenced the build up of the spider population with higher population being observed during the reproductive phase. In general, the spiders preferred soft bodied insects like the hemipterans, lepidopterans, dipterans and coleopterans (eggs and grubs) for predation. While the spiders did not show any significant preference for the different hemipteran prey in a mixed diet, significant difference was shown for the different lepidopteran pests. O. javanus had the maximum preference for the lepidopteran pests Chemical insecticides were more toxic to the spiders than botanicals when tested at their recommended doses. Among the chemical insecticides, dimethoate 0.05 per cent, carbaryl 0.2 per cent and malathion 0.1 per cent were highly toxic. Even at different doses the insecticides were toxic to the spiders. Quinalphos 0.05 per cent and imidacloprid were less toxic. Between the two methods of application, topical application of insecticides was more detrimental to the spiders than release on treated plants. Among the spiders, T. mandibulata was more susceptible to the insecticides followed by C. danieli. O. javanus and N. mukerjei were less sensitive. While the fungal pathogens, M. anisopliae, P. lilacinus and Bt were safe to the spiders. F. pallidoroseum, Fusarium sp. and B. bassiana were pathogenic. Based on the results of the study, conservation of the spiders characteristic of the vegetable ecosystem would be a practical and ecologically and economically viable approach for pest suppression in vegetables. When there is a spurt in pest ravage, the protection afforded by the predator could be supplemented with judicious use of “spider friendly” insecticides.
Open Access
Nutrient analysis and value addition of underutilized fish
(Department of Home Science, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2004) Jishy, K K; KAU; Omana Pavunny, E
Fish contains the best proteins and other superior nutritional constituents that place them in a specially important category of food. It has very poor shelf life. Hence, the present study on nutrient analysis and value addition of under utilized fish was aimed at evaluating the nutrients and developing products from three under utilized fish varieties namely netholi (Stoliphorus heterolobus), flat fish (Cynoglossus macrostorus) and veluri (Kovala kova/). This will help in meeting the increasing demand for fish; to avoid wastage of small fish and to provide income to the fisher women. The fresh and dried fish varieties were analysed for chemical constituents like moisture, fat, protein, calcium, phosphorus, iron, vitamin A and peroxide value. Fish was found to be rich sources of protein, calcium and phosphorus. Chemical constituents varied significantly between the varieties. The dried fish was packed in polythene covers and was stored for a period of three months. The peroxide value increased during the storage but the increase was not significant. Dried netholi had the highest peroxide value throughout the storage period. The organoleptic qualities decreased during storage. The change of organoleptic scores was not significant; veluri had the highest acceptability throughout the storage period. Microbial enumeration revealed that bacterial population increased I slightly during storage and fungus was found only in second and third month of storage. No traces of yeast were found throughout the storage period. The pickle prepared from fresh and dried fish was stored in glass bottle and polyester laminated HDPE film for a period of six months. The peroxide value of the pickle increased during the storage but the increase was insignificant. The acidity of the pickle increased significantly. The pickle stored in flexible packaging material had higher peroxide value and acidity than pickle stored in glass bottle. Dried fish pickle had higher peroxide value and acidity than fresh fish pickle. The organoleptic evaluation of pickle revealed that appearance and colour decreased during storage. The flavour texture, taste and overall acceptability of pickle increased during storage. Changes in organoleptic scores except appearance were insignificant. Appearance decreased significantly. The pickle stored in glass bottle had better acceptability than pickle stored in polyester laminated IIDPE film, but the variation was insignificant. The fresh fish pickle had better acceptability and among them veluri pickle was found to be the best. A gradual increase in the bacterial and fungal load with storage of pickle was observed but yeast was not found during the storage. The benefit cost analysis showed that all products had BC ratio above one hence, all are economically beneficial.
Open Access
Nutritional profile of fisher women
(Department of Home Science, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2004) Saleena, K; KAU; Omana, Pavunny
A study on "nutritional profile of fisher women" was conducted among 100 fisher women of 18-45 years age group in the coastal areas of Thrissur district. The result of the study indicated that majority of them were Hindus. Nuclear family system was found in most of the families and family size ranged in between 3 to 5. Most of the male and female members were literate and engaged in fish related work. Majority of the families had a monthly income in between Rs.500 to Rs.1500. Maximum proportion of income was spent on food items and majority of the families did not have the habit of saving money. Majority of the families had their own houses with brick as wall -.-- material and with thatched or concrete roof. Majority of the houses had separate kitchen with 3 to 5 rooms. Drinking water, electricity and lavatory facilities were satisfactory whereas drainage facilities were found to be inadequate. As a medical aid majority of the families depended on district hospital, primary health centre as well as private doctors for their medical care. Majority of the families were members ofmatsyafed. All the families were non vegetarians and consumed rice as the staple food. Maximum percentage of the food expenditure was for cereals. The most frequently used food items were cereals, fish, fats and oils, sugar and spices and condiments. None of the families planed their meals in advance and maintain time schedule for taking meals. Majority of the families consumed food three times a day and did not give equal importance to all family members in food distribution. Special foods were included in the diet during pregnancy, lactation and infancy. Diet modification during disease conditions was observed. The nutritional profile of the respondents indicated that the body weight of33 per cent and height of24 per cent of the respondents were lower than the reference body weight and height for an Indian reference woman. About 13 per cent of the respondents had various grades of CED. The waist hip ratio indicated that about 97 per cent of the respondents had femoral gluteal obesity and 3 per cent had abdominal obesity. Dietary profile of respondents indicated that all the food groups were far below the requirement except for fish. The nutrient intake was satisfactory only with respect to protein. Clinical examination showed vanous symptoms of nutritional deficiencies among the respondents. Actual nutrient intake of the respondents indicated that except fat, calcium and vitamin C, all nutrients were lower than the RDA. Biochemical estimation of blood showed 35 per cent of respondents had low haemoglobin values, indicating anaemia.
Open Access
Efficacy of vermicompost,vermiwash and amf on quality seed production of bhindi
(Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2005) Nishana H; Sajitharani T
An experiment was conducted at College of Agriculture, Vellayani during June to September of 2004 to evaluate the efficacy of vermicompost, vermiwash and AMF on quality seed production in bhindi. The experiment was laid out in split plot design with two replications. The main treatments were aquatic weed vermicompost, banana pseudostem vermicompost and farmyard manure along with vermiwash through soil application, foliar application, soil + foliar application and control treatment as water spray. The subplot treatments consisted of AMF application and without AMF application. Taller plants were observed in banana pseudostem vermicompost and aquatic weed vermicompost treated plots. Significantly higher number of leaves with high leaf area index and dry matter production was noticed in aquatic weed vermicompost compared to other organic manures. Days for 50 per cent flowering was found maximum for farmyard manure. Aquatic weed vermicompost also showed better root characteristics along with yield attributes such as number of flowers plant-1, number of fruits plant-1, fruit yield plant-1, total fruit yield ha-1, number of seeds fruit-1 & seed yield ha–1 with better seed quality parameters like seed viability, seeding vigour and germination percentage. Among the modes of vermiwash application, soil + foliar application of vermiwash was found better in showing superior trends in plant height, number of leaves, leaf area index, dry matter production, number of flowers and fruits plant-1, fruit yield plant-1, total fruit yield and seed yield ha–1 with better seed quality i.e., seedling vigour and germination percentage. AMF application also showed maximum plant height, leaf area index, dry matter production, root length, root - shoot ratio, fruit yield plant-1, total fruit yield, weight of seeds fruit-1 and seed yield ha–1. Higher BC ratio was found in aquatic weed vermicompost, soil + foliar application of vermiwash and in AMF. So aquatic weed vermicompost along with soil + foliar application of vermiwash and AMF is ideal for quality seed production in bhindi.

Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur

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