Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur

The history of agricultural education in Kerala can be traced back to the year 1896 when a scheme was evolved in the erstwhile Travancore State to train a few young men in scientific agriculture at the Demonstration Farm, Karamana, Thiruvananthapuram, presently, the Cropping Systems Research Centre under Kerala Agricultural University. Agriculture was introduced as an optional subject in the middle school classes in the State in 1922 when an Agricultural Middle School was started at Aluva, Ernakulam District. The popularity and usefulness of this school led to the starting of similar institutions at Kottarakkara and Konni in 1928 and 1931 respectively. Agriculture was later introduced as an optional subject for Intermediate Course in 1953. In 1955, the erstwhile Government of Travancore-Cochin started the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, Thiruvananthapuram and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences at Mannuthy, Thrissur for imparting higher education in agricultural and veterinary sciences, respectively. These institutions were brought under the direct administrative control of the Department of Agriculture and the Department of Animal Husbandry, respectively. With the formation of Kerala State in 1956, these two colleges were affiliated to the University of Kerala. The post-graduate programmes leading to M.Sc. (Ag), M.V.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees were started in 1961, 1962 and 1965 respectively. On the recommendation of the Second National Education Commission (1964-66) headed by Dr. D.S. Kothari, the then Chairman of the University Grants Commission, one Agricultural University in each State was established. The State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) were established in India as an integral part of the National Agricultural Research System to give the much needed impetus to Agriculture Education and Research in the Country. As a result the Kerala Agricultural University (KAU) was established on 24th February 1971 by virtue of the Act 33 of 1971 and started functioning on 1st February 1972. The Kerala Agricultural University is the 15th in the series of the SAUs. In accordance with the provisions of KAU Act of 1971, the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, were brought under the Kerala Agricultural University. In addition, twenty one agricultural and animal husbandry research stations were also transferred to the KAU for taking up research and extension programmes on various crops, animals, birds, etc. During 2011, Kerala Agricultural University was trifurcated into Kerala Veterinary and Animal Sciences University (KVASU), Kerala University of Fisheries and Ocean Studies (KUFOS) and Kerala Agricultural University (KAU). Now the University has seven colleges (four Agriculture, one Agricultural Engineering, one Forestry, one Co-operation Banking & Management), six RARSs, seven KVKs, 15 Research Stations and 16 Research and Extension Units under the faculties of Agriculture, Agricultural Engineering and Forestry. In addition, one Academy on Climate Change Adaptation and one Institute of Agricultural Technology offering M.Sc. (Integrated) Climate Change Adaptation and Diploma in Agricultural Sciences respectively are also functioning in Kerala Agricultural University.

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Open Access
Comparative study of healing of fracture of metacarpus in calves using different external immobilisation methods
(Department of Surgery, College of Veterinary and Animal Science, Mannuthy, 1990) Kalyani, Biswas; KAU; Muraleedharan, Nayar K N
The study was conducted on 18 crossbred male calves divided in three groups of six animals each. Under local anaesthesia (ring block) fracture was created at the midshaft region of the large metacarpal and was reduced. The limb was immobilized with (i) plaster of paris cast (Group A), (ii) transfixation apparatus and plaster of paris cast (group B) and (iii) cast using freshly prepared gum and bandgage (group C). The animals were kept under observation upto six weeks. One animal from each group was sacrificed at the second week and fourth week, and the remaining animals at the sixth week. Oedema was observed distal to the cast in two animals each in Group A and C and four animals in Group B. Pointing of the toes was noticed in three animals of group A, two animals of group B and one animal of Group C. Dragging of the toes was noticed in three animals each of group A and C. All the animals, except one from Group A, were bearing weight on the limb and could get up and lie down unassisted by the first week. Four animals of group A, two animals of group B and three animals of Group C favoured the limb throughout the period. In group A and B, the plaster cast remained intact throughout the period of observation in one animal, had to be changed once in three animals and twice in two animals. In group C, the cast remained intact throughout the period of observation in three animals and was changed once in three animals. Radiodense area was observed at the fracture site in one animal by the first week, in four animals of each group by the second week and in all animals except one by the third week and in all the animals by the fourth week. The fracture line had become less district in one animal of group A, two animals of Group B and one animal of group C by the third week. Ossification of the callus was noticed in all the animals by the fourth week. The fracture line was less distinct in all the animals of Group A, three animals of group B and two animals of Group C. Ossification of the callus and its union was noticed by the fifth week in all the animals except one animal of Group C. However, in group B, ossification was more extensive. Partial obliteration of the fracture line was seen in all except three animals. Extensive ossification of the callus with continuity between the callus of the two fragments and partial obliteration of the fracture line was observed in all the animals, except one animal of Group C by sixth week. The fractured bone cropped after two weeks revealed that in Group A, the fragments were separate and there was mobility at the fracture site but in Group B and C , mobility was less. Soft callus between the fragments and restricted mobility at the fracture site was noticed in the bones cropped at four weeks in animals of all the groups. The callus was well developed and the fragments were firmly fixed by the callus in the bones cropped at six weeks, I all animals of groups A and B and in three animals of Group C. Microscopic examination of the callus at two weeks revealed periosteal and capillary proliferation with zones of necrosis of cortical bone at the fracture site in Group A. In group B and C, the proliferative changes were more marked along with zones of ossification. The callus cropped at four weeks, revealed marked connective tissue and capillary proliferation along with zones of ossification and formation of trabeculae in Group A and C, and in Group B ossification was more extensive. Extensive ossification and interconnected trabeculae continous with the cortical bone was observed in the callus cropped at six weeks in all the three groups. Zones of hyaline cartilage were observed in the callus in the animals of Group A and one animal of Group B and Zone of suppuration in one animal of Group C. Suppuration at the suture line involving the callus and fracture site was observed in one animal of Group C. Partial displacement of the fragments after immobilization was noticed in two animals of group A, three animals of Group B and four animals of Group C.
Open Access
Xylazine anaesthesia in calves with diazepam premedication
(Department of Surgery, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 1993) Regi Varghese George, P; KAU; Rajankutty, K
The study was undertaken to find out the efficacy of xylazine alone and xylazine in combination with diazepam for anaesthesia in calves and to evaluate the haematological and systemic changes consequent on administration of these drugs. The experimental study was conducted on 24 apparantly healthy crossbread calves aged six to twelve months and weighing 47 to 80kg . They were divided into two groups viz.,group I and group II and each group was further divided into two subgroups viz., A and B consisting of six animals each. Xylazine was administered IM at the rate of 0.20mg and 0.30 mg/kg bodyweight in subgroups I A and IB respectively. Diazepam at the rate of 1.0mg/kg bodyweight and 15min. later xylazine at the rate of 0.20mg and 0.30 mg/kg bodyweight were administered IM in subgroups II A and II B respectively. The induction time was 8.50 + 1.47 min and 4.67 + 0.56 min in subgroups I A and I B respectively, whereas it was 8.67 + 1.71 min and 3.33 + 0.77 min in subgroups IIA and II B respectively. The clinical signs of anaesthesia generally observed in these animals were incoordination of movements, assumption of sterna recumbency, salivation, protrusion of tongue, assumption of lateral recumbency, drooping of eyelids, twitching and dropping of ears, bellowing, deviation of eyeball, flaccidity of the tail and relaxation of abdominal muscles. Palpebral reflex was sluggish in all the subgroups except in subgroup II B wherein it was absent. Response to pinprick though sluggish, was noticed in group I whereas insensititivity to pinprick was noticed in group II. Duration of anaesthesia was 107.17 + 5.22 min and 115.67 + 10.03 min in subgroups I A and I B, whereas it was 199.83 + 36.55 min and 390.33 + 61.31 min in subgroups IIA and II B respectively. Increase in the doses of xylazine had prolonged the duration of anesthesia. Premedication with diazepam had still further prolonged the duration of anaesthesia. Sedation was good enough in all the groups for preparing and handling the animals for surgery. During laparotomy, in animals where xylazine alone was administered symptoms of pain were observed, but to a lesser extent with the higher dose. When premedicated with diazepam, incising and suturing of skin did not cause pain, but incising and suturing muscles and peritoneum caused pain. The animals did not exhibit signs of pain or swelling at the site of injection following xylazine injection, but diazepam injection was found painful. All the animals resumed feeding and drinking soon after recovery, but they were dull for varying periods from three to twenty four hours. Decrease in rectal temperature and pulse rate was observed in both the groups, which gradually became normal. Decrease in respiration rate was observed in group I whereas in group II, there was increase in respiration rate. In subgroup II B, the respiration was jerky and abdominal. Electrocardiogram revealed decreased heart rate in both the groups after the administration of xylazine. Decrease in total erythrocyte and leukocyte counts was observed in both the groups, which gradually became normal. A slight neutropenia with lymphocytosis was evident when xylazine alone was administered. When xylazine was combined with diazepam neutrophilia with lymphocytopenia was observed. Marked variation in monocyte, eosinophil and basophil counts were not observed in both the groups. Reduction in packed cell volume, decrease in haemoglobin concentration and slight increase in erythrocyte sedimentation rate were observed in both the groups. Serum sodium and potassium concentration did not show any marked variation, whereas serum chloride concentration recorded an increase in both the groups. The total serum protein content decreased in both the groups and serum glutamic pyruvic transminase value recorded slight increase. There was marked increase in blood glucose value in both the groups. From the study it was found that : (i) administration of xylazine alone did not result in analgesia good enough to perform major surgical operations and (ii) premedication with diazepam was found to deepen the effect of sedation to a considerable extent. It would be desirable to resort to local infiltration or regional block also, for complete analgesia for major surgical operations.
Open Access
Xylazine-acepromazine anaesthesia in goats
(Department of Surgery, College of Veterinary and Animal Science, 1993) Tulpule Deepak, Surendra; KAU; Ravindran Nayar, S
The present study was undertaken with the object of finding out the efficacy of xylazine hydrochloride alone and xylazine hydrochloride in combination with acepromazine maleate for anaesthesia in goats and to evaluate the haematological and systemic changes, consequent on the administration of these drugs. Eighteen apparently healthy Malabari male kids aged six to twelve months were selected for the experimental study. A total number of 36 experiments were conducted in these animals . They were divided into two groups, viz. group I and group II and each group was further divided into three subgroups, viz. A, B and C. Six experiments were conducted in each subgroup. Xylazine hydrochloride was administered intramuscularly at the rate of 0.10, 0.15 and 0.20 mg/kg bodyweight in subgroups I A, IB and IC respectively. Acepromazine maleate at the rate of 0.05 mg/kg bodyweight and 15 min later xylazine hydrochloride at the rate of 0.10, 0.15 and 0.20 mg/kg bodyweight were administered intramuscularly in subgroups IIA, IIB and IIC respectively. The induction time was 19.00 + 6.18 min, 16.33 + 4.46 min. and 19.33 + 3.84 min in subgroups IA, IB and IC respectively whereas it was 16.60 + 4.01 min, 19.60 + 5.30 min and 21.50 + 6.06 min in subgroups IIA, IIB and IIC, respectively. There was no appreciable variation in induction time whether xylazine alone or xylazine acepromazine combination were used, irrespective of the dose of xylazine. Signs of anaesthesia such as drooling of saliva, assumption of sternal recumbency, insensitivity to pinprick at flank region, dropping of lower jaw, protrusion of tongue, assumption of lateral recumbency and drooping of eyelids were observed in most of the animals. The onset and disappearance of these signs were not in a uniform sequence. Sensitivity to pinprick at the flank region was the last to reappear. Decrease in rectal temperature was noticed in animals of both the groups except in subgroup IA wherein, the increase was not significant. Significant decrease in heart rate was seen in animals of both the groups except in subgroups IA and IB. Respiration rate was seen decreased in animals of both the groups and the decrease was more with the xylazine – acepromazine combination. The duration of anaesthesia was 31.75 + 10.92 min, 49.50 + 8.31 min and 47.00 + 4.73 min in subgroups IA, IB and IC whereas it was 20.60 + 6.79 min, 22.80 + 5.74 min and 66.25 + 24.31 min in subgroupps IIA, IIB and IIC respectively. Xylazine when administered alone produced anaesthesia for 30 – 50 min. When lower doses of xylazine were administered along with acepromazine, the duration of anaesthesia was comparatively less and so xylazine alone is preferable to xylazine acepromazine combination for anaesthetizing goats. In the present study, it was observed that the period of recovery was 50.00 + 15.64 min, 63.16 + 7.12 min and 91.33 + 25.20 min in subgroups IA , IB and IC respectively whereas it was 96.80 + 25.04 min, 64.80 + 3.37 min and 90.75 + 18.57 min in subgroups IIA, IIB and IIC respectively. The recovery period was found to be on the increase when xylazine alone was administered at higher doses. The recovery was smooth and uneventful in animals of both the groups. Drowsiness and incoordicnationwere seen in all the apparently normal by 24 h and no local reactions were seen at site of injections. Fall in blood pressure (systolic and diastolic) was observed in animals of both the groups and was significant (P < 0.01) in group II. Rise in central venous pressure was observed in animals of both the groups and was significant (P<0.01) in both the groups at 30 min except in subgroup I A. Electrocardiogram revealed bradycardia in all the animals except in one animal from subgroup IB, where tachycardia was observed. Decrease in total leukocyte count was seen in all the animals upto 90min. An increase in total leukocyte count over the baseline values was noticed by 24 h in both the groups except in subgroup IA. Decrease in lymphocyte and increase in neutrophil count were observed in all the animals upto 90 min except in subgroups IC and IIC. Variation in monocyte and eosinophil count was not significant in any of the groups. Decrease in haemoglobin content and packed cell volume was observed in animals of both the groups upto 90 min. Increase in blood glucose value was noticed in animals of both the groups upto 48h though not significant in subgroup IA and IB. From the result of the present study, it could be seen that, xylazine at the rate of 0.10 mg/kg and at the rate of 0.15 mg/kg bodyweight is suitable for surgical procedures of short duration in goats.
Open Access
Comparative study of ketamine hydrochloride and thiopentone sodium anaesthesia in birds
(Department of Surgery, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 1991) Devanand, C B; KAU; Abraham Varkey, C
The present study was undertaken to assess the efficacy of (i) ketamine hydrochloride, (ii) thiopentone sodium, and (iii) ketamine hydrochloride followed by thiopentone sodium, for anaesthetising domestic chicken and ducks. Th~rty apparently healthy White Leghorn cocks, aged 18 - 20 weeks and weighing 1.120 - 1.920 kg (Group I) and thirty apparently heal thy White Pekin .dz-ake s , aged 20 - 22 weeks and weighing 1.700 - 2.100 kg (Group II) were used. Group I and II were further divided into three sub-groups, viz.,A, Band C consisting of ten birds each. Ketamine hydrochloride at the rate of 100 mg per kg bodyweight was administered in sub-group A, thiopentone sodium (2.5 per cent solution) at the rate of 15 mg per kg in sub-group B, and ketamine hydrochloride at the rate of 50 mg per kg followed by thiopentone sodium (2.5 per cent solution) at the rate of 7.5 mg per kg in sub-group C, in both the trials. The drugs were administered intraperi- toneally. During the onset of anaesthesia, when ketamine hydrochloride was administered, loss of balance, unsteadiness of head, cyanosis of comb and wattles, defaecation and vocalisation were noticed in chicken, but in ducks defaecation was not present. Ruffled feathers, dropping of wings, fluttering and wagging of tail were noticed as additional symptoms in ducks. When thiopentone sodium was administered, loss of balance, unsteadiness of head, cyanosis of comb and wattles, ruffled feathers and dropping of' wings were noticed in chicken, but in ducks vocalisation and fluttering were noticed in addition. When ketamine hydrochloride followed by thiopentone sodium was administered, loss of balance, unsteadiness of head, cyanosis of comb and wattles, dropping of neck and wings, and closing of eyelids were noticed in chicken and ducks. In ducks the onset was very quick. All the birds assumed sternal recumbency followed by lateral recumbency after the onset of anaesthesia. As the effect of anaesthesia deepened, pedal reflexes were abolished in both the groups. However, other reflexes such as corneal, pupillary, palpebral and reflexes of the third eyelid, comb and wattles were persisting in chicken and ducks. During ketamine hydrochloride anaesthesia eyes were kept open, and when thiopentone sodium or ketamine hydrochloride followed by thiopentone sodium were administered, eyes were kept closed. In ducks, abolished when the reflexes of the third eyelid were ketamine hydrochloride followed by thiopentone sodium was administered. The induction was smooth and uneventful in chicken and ducks. The time for induction was 7.30+0.53 min.,. 9.30+0.38 min. and 8.00+0.58 min. in sub-groups A, Band C respectively in chicken, and 9.20±.0.58 min., 10.20+0.87 min. and 4.60+0.70 min. in sub-groups A, Band C respecti vely in ducks. The time for induction was the least in chicken when ketamine hydrochloride was used, and ln ducks when ketamine hydrochloride followed by thiopentone sodium was used. The duration of anaesthesia was 63.40+2.16 min., 31.40+1.82 min. and 40.20+3.99 min. in sub-groups A, Band C respectively in chicken, and 35.90±2.43 min., 18.90+0.99 min. and 20.20+0.89 min. in sub-groups A, Band C respectively in .du ck s , The duration of anaesthesia was maximum when ketamine hydrochloride was administered and minimum when thiopentone sodium was administered in both the groups. The duration of recovery was 135.50+9.24 min. in sub-group A, 149.60+8.32 mln. in sub~group B and 131.20+5.10 min. in . sub-group C, in chicken, and 84.50+7.31 min. in sub-group A, . 64.40+8.33 min. in sub-group Band 113.10+6.15 min. in sub-group C, in ducks. The duration of recovery was the least when ketamine hydrochloride followed by thiopentone sodium was used in chicken, and when thiopentone sodium was used in ducks. The recovery from anaesthesia was smooth and uneventful in both the groups. Vigorous shaking of the head was seen when ketamine hydrochloride was administered in ducks. There was reduction in cloacal temperature during anaesthesia. Respiration rate showed an initial rise followed by gradual reduction. The total erythrocyte count was decreased during anaesthesia. The total leukocyte count was decreased in sub-groups A and B, and increased in sub-group C, in chicken. There was an increase in total leukocyte count in ducks. Lymphocyte count was decreased, but heterophil count and eosinophil count were increased. There was no response to pain on incising and suturing the skin, muscles and peritoneum except for slight movement while incising the skin during ketamine hydrochloride anaesthesia. Focal congestion of liver and kidney were noticed on the 5th day. Mild degree of inflammatory reaction on the parietal peritoneum was noticed at the point of entry of the needle wherein thiopentone sodium was administered. From the results of present study, it could be found that intraperitoneal administration of ketamine hydrochloride, thiopentone sodium, and ketamine hydrochloride followed by thiopentone sodium resulted in satisfactory surgical plane of anaesthesia in chicken and ducks. For chicken, ketamine hydrochloride is preferred because of the comparatively least time for induction, prolonged duration of anaesthesia and recovery. Post anaesthetic complications were not found. In ducks the duration of anaesthesia was more, when ketamine hydrochloride was administered, but vigorous shaking of the head was seen during the period fr~v.ay. Hence, for ducks, ketamine hydrochloride followed by thiopentone sodium is preferred because of the comparatively least time for induction and satisfactory duration of anaesthesia and recovery.

Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur

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