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Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur
The history of agricultural education in Kerala can be traced back to the year 1896 when a scheme was evolved in the erstwhile Travancore State to train a few young men in scientific agriculture at the Demonstration Farm, Karamana, Thiruvananthapuram, presently, the Cropping Systems Research Centre under Kerala Agricultural University. Agriculture was introduced as an optional subject in the middle school classes in the State in 1922 when an Agricultural Middle School was started at Aluva, Ernakulam District. The popularity and usefulness of this school led to the starting of similar institutions at Kottarakkara and Konni in 1928 and 1931 respectively.
Agriculture was later introduced as an optional subject for Intermediate Course in 1953. In 1955, the erstwhile Government of Travancore-Cochin started the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, Thiruvananthapuram and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences at Mannuthy, Thrissur for imparting higher education in agricultural and veterinary sciences, respectively. These institutions were brought under the direct administrative control of the Department of Agriculture and the Department of Animal Husbandry, respectively. With the formation of Kerala State in 1956, these two colleges were affiliated to the University of Kerala. The post-graduate programmes leading to M.Sc. (Ag), M.V.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees were started in 1961, 1962 and 1965 respectively.
On the recommendation of the Second National Education Commission (1964-66) headed by Dr. D.S. Kothari, the then Chairman of the University Grants Commission, one Agricultural University in each State was established. The State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) were established in India as an integral part of the National Agricultural Research System to give the much needed impetus to Agriculture Education and Research in the Country. As a result the Kerala Agricultural University (KAU) was established on 24th February 1971 by virtue of the Act 33 of 1971 and started functioning on 1st February 1972. The Kerala Agricultural University is the 15th in the series of the SAUs.
In accordance with the provisions of KAU Act of 1971, the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, were brought under the Kerala Agricultural University. In addition, twenty one agricultural and animal husbandry research stations were also transferred to the KAU for taking up research and extension programmes on various crops, animals, birds, etc.
During 2011, Kerala Agricultural University was trifurcated into Kerala Veterinary and Animal Sciences University (KVASU), Kerala University of Fisheries and Ocean Studies (KUFOS) and Kerala Agricultural University (KAU).
Now the University has seven colleges (four Agriculture, one Agricultural Engineering, one Forestry, one Co-operation Banking & Management), six RARSs, seven KVKs, 15 Research Stations and 16 Research and Extension Units under the faculties of Agriculture, Agricultural Engineering and Forestry. In addition, one Academy on Climate Change Adaptation and one Institute of Agricultural Technology offering M.Sc. (Integrated) Climate Change Adaptation and Diploma in Agricultural Sciences respectively are also functioning in Kerala Agricultural University.
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ThesisItem Open Access Tracheal reconstruction in dogs under acepromazine - thiopental anaesthesia(Department of Surgery, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 1995) Angamuthu, Jayasudha; KAU; Ravindran Nayar, SThe experiment was conducted on twelve, apparently healthy, adult, nondescript dogs of either sex, divided into two groups, viz., Group 1 and Group 11, each consisting of six animals. Circumferential resection of two adjacent tracheal rings of the cervical trachea was performed and the trachea was reconstructed by end – to – end anastomosis in the animals of Group 1 and with Marlex mesh prosthesis in the animals of Group 11. All the animals were premedicated with acepromazine maleate IM, and anaesthesia was induced by 2.5 per cent solution of thiopentone sodium IV. Induction of anaesthesia was complete by 3.26 + 0.10 minutes, duration of surgical anaesthesia was 65.00 + 3.29 minutes and time for recovery was 192.91 + 13.68 minutes. Variation in the physiological and haematological parameters during anaesthesia were not significant. In Group 1, all the animals had normal respiratory function throughout the period of observation, following surgery. In Group 11, all the animals, except one, developed severe complications and died within one to four weeks postoperatively. Only one dog survived in this group and was sacrificed on the 45th postoperative day. During the postoperative period, the rectal temperature did not show marked variations in both the groups. The pulse and respiration rates showed an initial increase in Group 1. However in Group 11, marked decrease in pulse rate and increase in respiration rate was noticed. Hemogram on the different postoperative days showed an increase in the total leucocyte count in both the groups, and increase in monocyte and eosinophil count in Group 11. Radiography on different postoperative days in Group 1 demonstrated that there was no reduction in the size of the tracheal lumen at the site of anastomosis in five of the six animals. In Group 11, radiography revealed a progressive reduction in the size of the tracheal lumen at the site of reconstruction in four animals, and only slight reduction in one dog on the 45th postoperative day. At autopsy, gross examination of the trachea at the site of anastomosis in Group 1 showed mild to moderate adhesions to the adjacent tissue and there was no reduction in the size of the tracheal lumen in five of the six dogs of this group. In animals of Group 11, dense adhesion between the site of reconstruction and adjacent tissue was observed. The mesh was fully incorporated at the site of reconstruction in five of the six animals. One animal had shown anastomotic dehiscence. Almost complete occlusion of the trachea by overgrowth of tissue was observed in four animals and slight reduction in the tracheal lumen in one animal. Histopathology at the site of anastomosis in Group 1 revealed complete healing of all the layers of the trachea by the 30th postoperative day. In Group 11, tracheal stenosis was associated with ingrowth of granulation tissue in four animals. The mesh was infiltrated by fibrous tissue in five of the six animals. Epithelium was seen lining the prosthesis on the 45th postoperative day.ThesisItem Open Access Comparison of crushing and modified gambee techniques for intestinal anastomosis in dogs under xylazine anaesthesia(Department of Surgery, College of Veterinary and Animal Science, Mannuthy, 1995) Venkatesan, C; KAU; Abraham Varkey, CThe study was conducted on 12 apparently healthy, adult mongrel dogs of either sex, dived in to two groups viz, group I and group II, each consisting of 6 dogs. All the animals were pre-mediacated with diazepam at the rate of 1 mg/kg bodyweight intravenous and anaesthetized with intramascular administration of xylazine hydrochloride at the rate of 2 mg/kg bodyweight. In the animals of group I and to end intestinal anaestomosis was performed with crushing pattern of suturing and in the animals of group II end to end intestinal anastomosis was performed with modified Gambee pattern of suturing. The anesthetic technique was satisfactory for the surgical procedure in all the animals . The induction tome for anaesthesia was 15.50 + 1.00 minutes. THe anaesthetic effect persisted for about 48.25-1.10 minutes. The abdominal muscle relaxation and analgesic effect were found satisfactory. The recovery period was 30.00 + 1.50 minutes and was smooth and uneventful. The time required to perform anastomosis using crushing and modified gambee techniques were 26.30 + 1.40 and 35.70 + 0.87 respectively. The average number of sutures used in both techniques were 15. In both groups, animals well tolerated food in the immediate post-operative days. However, one animal in group I and three animals from group II, had vomition immediately after consumption of milk at 12 hours post – operatively. Physiological and haemotological parameters did not reveal any significant variation. In both the groups , post operative lateral and ventrodorsal radiographs showed free passage of contrast medium (Barium Sulphate) upto the terminal colon. There was no evidence of anastomotic leakage and proximal distension in both the groups. Autopsy findings revealed that all the animals had adhesion at the anastomotic site with omentum. Adhesion to adjacent intestinal serosal surface were observed in one animal in each group . Gross evaluation of the adominal cavity revealed a low-grade peritonitis in one animal of group I on 3rd post surgical day. The Luminal stenosis of the anastomotic site revealed, maximum luminal stenosis (47.83%) at 7th post –operative days and minimum (21.74%) at 28th day following crushing pattern. In modified Gambee pattern, the maximum luminal stenosis (42.85%) was noticed at 5th and 7th post –operative days and minimum stenosis (7.32%) at 28th day. The luminal stenosis did not produce any clinical symptom in any of the dogs in both the groups. Angiograms of early post – operative day (5th day) showed diffused, avascular zone at the anastomotic site in both the techniques. Eventhourgh, there was commencement of proliferation of vessels and its invasion into anastomotic site by 14th day in the crushing anastomosis, normal vascularity and its crossing over could not be observed till 28th day, where as the modified gambee anastomosis showed proliferation and crossing over of fine arterioles by 28th day. Histological examination demonstrated that in crushing anastomosis comparatively moderate inflammatory reaction with predominance of mononuclears and few polymorphs on the 3rd day, but from 14th day there was only mild inflammatory reaction which which persisted upto 28th day. In modified Gambee technique, only mild reaction was seen on the early post opestive days and it subsided by 21st day. Rapid regeneration of epithelium was noticed in the modified Gambee (7th day) than the crushing technique. On the 28th day, in both the techniques all layers appeared in good apposition with proliferation of connective tissue on the muscular, subserosal and submucosal layers.ThesisItem Open Access Treatment of fracture of metacarpus in calves using autogenous rib graft(Department of Surgery, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 1994) Syam, K Venugopal; KAU; JalaluddinThe present study was conducted on 12 apparently healthy, crossbred male calves six to twelve months of age and weighing 50 to 80 kg, divided into two groups of six animals each (Group A and B). A transversa mid shaft fracture was created on the right metacarpus by open method under sedation with Triflupromazine hydrochloride at the rate of 0.25 mg/kg body weight IM and diazepam at the rate of 0.20 mg/kg body weight IV followed by local infiltration analgesia using two percent solution of lignocaine hydrochloride. In group A, the fracture was reduced and the fragments were retained in position by placing two freshly cropped autogenous rib grafts subperiosteally, one on the anterior aspect and the other on the posterior aspect of the metacarpus. The grafts were fixed in position by hemicerclage wiring using stainless steel wires at two places. The limb was immobilized with four cotton padded bamboo splints and plaster of paris cast. In group B, the fracture was reduced and the wounds were sutured. The limb was immobilised with four cotton padded bamboo splints and plaster of paris cast. A sham operation was performed on the left metacarpal region on the same day by incising the skin upto the periosteum and suturing it. By the end of the second week, all the animals could get up and lie down without assistance. Four animals of Group A and three animals of Group B started bearing weight on the fractured limb from varying periods. Favouring of the fractured limb, limping and nodding of the head were observed in all the animals. Pawing action with the fractured limb and stumbling were observed in two animals each from both the groups. Dragging of the toes was observed only in one animal, in group B. Infection and suppuration at the suture line was observed in one animal of group A. Plaster of paris cast remained intact throughout the period of observation in all the animals. One animal from group A and four animals from group B required reinforcement of plaster cast. Marked displacement of the distal fragment was noticed in one animal each in Group A and B. But deviation of the distal fragment at the fracture site was observed in one animal of Group A and four animals of Group B. Grafts were in position in all the animals throughout the the period of observation. They became radiographically indistinguishable from fourth week onwards. Radiographically visible callus was found by the third week in group A and by the first week in group B. Partial obliteration of the fracture gap was observed by the end of fourth week in both the groups. Fractured bone cropped after two weeks revealed mobility between the fragments in both the groups. The bones cropped after four weeks showed well developed callus uniting the fragments and there was no mobility at the fracture site in both the groups. The callus developed at the end of six weeks and four weeks were grossly similar in both the groups. Histological examination of the callus cropped at second week in group A revealed periosteal and capillary proliferation along with new trabecular bone formation around the graft site. In group B, fibrous tissue proliferation exceeded trabecular new bone formation. The callus cropped at fourth week in group A revealed extensive areas of graft vascularisation and zones of new bone formation. In group B, cartilage formation was seen along with zones of new bone formation and fibrous tissue proliferation. Replacement of the graft tissue with proliferating blood vessels, osseous tissue and connective tissue were observed in the callus cropped from the animals of group A, at the end of six weeks. In group B, well developed internal callus, extensive periosteal callus, proliferation of fibrous tissue and trabecular ossification centres were observed. Fibrocartilage was noticed in the callus in one animal of group B.ThesisItem Open Access General anasthesia in dogs with Tiletamine-Zolazepam(Department of Surgery, College of Veterinary and Animal Science, Mannuthy, 1995) Rajankutty, K; KAU; Muraleedharan, Nair K NThe present study was undertaken to findout the efficacy of tiletamine – zolazepam alone and with xylazine premedication for anaesthesia in dogs and to evaluate the systemic changes consequent on the administration of these drugs. The experimental study was conducted on 36 adult non- descript dogs of either sex. The animals were randomly divided into two groups, (Group I and II ) consisting of 18 animals each. Each group was further divided into three subgroups, viz A, B and C, consisting of six animals each. Atopine sulphate (0.04 mg/kg bodyweight) was administered IM 15 minutes prior to the administration of the experimental drugs in all the dogs. Tiletamine – zolazepam (T-Z) combination was administered IM at the rate of 5mg, 10 mg and 15 mg/kg bodyweight in the subgroups IA, IB and IC respectively. Xylazine at the rate of 0.5 mg/kg bodyweight and 15 later, T-Z combination at the rate of 5 mg, 10 mg and 15mg/kg bodyweight were administered IM in the subgroups IIA , IIB and IIC respectively. The induction time was 6.17 + 1.01 min, 4.33 + 0.21 min and 4.33 + 0.49 min in subgroups IA, IB and IC respectively, and 3.33 + 0.62 min, 3.17 + 0.48 min and 2.83 + 0.54 min in subgroups IIA, IIB and IIC respectively. Increase in the dose of T-Z reduced the induction time and premedication with xylazine further reduced the induction time and induction was smooth. The onset of effect of tiletamine – zolazepm was characterized by the winking of eyes, yawning, licking and protrusion of tongue. The eyes remained open and pupils were slightly dilated. The palpebral and pedal reflexes and swallowing movements were not abolished. Salivation was scanty in both the groups. In the animals of group II the eyes were partially closed and palpebral and pedal reflexes were abolished but the swallowing movements were not. Protrusion of tongue, though present, was not to the extent that was observed in the animals of group I. Rhythmic side to side head movements were noticed during induction in all the animals of group I but not in animals of Group II. The duration of anaesthesia was 33.67 +5.88 min, 57.83 + 6.17 min, and 89.00 +2.86 min in subgroups IA, IB and IC respectively, whereas it was for 49.67 + 6.643 min, 105.17 + 10.31 min AND 125.83 + 10.78 min in subgroups IIA, IIB and IIC respectively. An increase in the dose of tiletamine – zolazepam had prolonged the duration of anaesthesia and premedication with xylazine produced still longer duration of anaesthesia. The jaw musculature maintained the tonus with the lower doses of tiletamine – zolazepm, but at 15 mg/kg bodyweight, the jaw muscles, though not fully relaxed, permitted endotracheal intubation. Administration of tiletamine – zolazepam with xylazine resulted in relaxation of the jaw muscles and permitted endotracheal intubation. Relaxation of the abdominal muscles was moderate to good when tiletamine – zolazepam alone was administered, whereas it was excellent with xylazine premedication. Administration of tiletamine – zolazepam alone was found insufficient for carrying out surgical procedures, but with xylazine premedication muscle relaxation and analgesia was satisfactory. The recovery time was 111.50 + 14.53 min, 116.50 + 10.46 min and 180.33 + 10.57 min in subgroups IA,IB and IC respectively, and it was 160.00 + 17.70 min, 180.00 + 14.94 min and 181.06 + 12.82 min in subgroups IIA, IIB and IIC respectively. Increase in the dose of tiletamine – zolazepam had delayed recovery and xylazine premedication delayed it still further. During recovery, paddling and vocalization were common in dogs of group I but not in dogs of group II. Reduction in rectal temperature was observed only in animals of subgroups IB and IC and in all the animals of Group II. Marked increase in pulse rate was observed in group I than in Group II. Respiration rate was decreased in both the groups. A mild increase in diastolic pressure was observed in Group I. The systolic and diastolic pressure were seen decreased in Group II. The changes in the coagulation time of blood was within the normal limits in both the groups. Increase in heart rate with depression of T-wave, biphasic T-wave and spiking of T-wave were the changes in electrocardiogram. But the changes were corrected spontaneously. There was slight decrease in the erythrocyte sedimentation rate in animals of group I but there was no change in Group II. Reduction in the packed cell volume was observed in both the groups, but it was more, after xylazine premedication. Slight decrease in haemoglobin concentration was noticed in subgroup IC. But there was no change in Group II. Decrease in total erythrocyte count was noticed in both the group and the decrease was more when premedicated with xylazine. The total leukocyte count was seen increased in subgroup IA and IB but it was seen decreased in subgroup IC, but there was no change in group II. Decrease in lymphocyte count with increase in neutrophil count was observed in subgroups IA and IIA. In subgroups IB and IC there were increase in lymphocyte count with decrease in neutrophil count, but in subgroups IIB and IIC a decrease or no alteration in the count of lymphocytes was observed. Monocyte and eosinophil counts were increased and the basophil count remained insignificant. There was marked increase in the serum glucose value following the the administration of tiletamine – zolazepam and with xylazine premedication the increase was more. No significant change was observed in the serum electrolytes (Na+, K+, and Cl-), total serum protein content and serum urea nitrogen value in both the groups. Slight increase in serum aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and serum alanine aminotransferase (ALT) values were observed in Group I,and in Group II there was increase in AST value, but the ALT value decreased initially and was followed by an increase. Histopathological examination of liver revealed cloudy swelling and mild fatty changes and kidney revealed cystic dilation of the renal tubules along with focal areas of nephrosis.ThesisItem Open Access Superficial keratectomy for the management of corneal wounds in canines(Department of Surgery, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 1996) David Suresh, J; KAU; Sarada Amma, TThe present study was undertaken to evaluate superficial keratectomy in the management of experimentally created corneal wounds in canines. The experiment was conducted on sixteen, apparently healthy adult mongrel dogs of either sex, randomly divided into two groups viz., Group I and II, each consisting of eight animals. Under topical anaesthesia using four per cent lignocaine solution, superficial injury on the ventral half of cornea of the left eye was created and after 24 hours, superficial keratectomy was performed on the ventral cornea under general anaesthesia. In Group I, the cornea was protected with the third eye lid flap and temporary tarsorrhaphy whereas in Group II, only tarsorrhaphy was performed to protect the cornea. The animals were premedicated with atropine sulphate (0.04 mg/kg bodyweight) S/C and after five minutes xylazine (0.5 mg/kg bodyweight) i/m. Anaesthesia was induced with five per cent solution of thiopentone sodium i/v. Induction of anaesthesia was complete by 3.34 + 0.28 minutes, duration of surgical anaesthesia was 40.25 + 2.63 minutes and the time taken for recovery was 121.88 + 7.34 minutes. The animals were kept under observation for 30 days. Clinical symptoms exhibited by the animals of both the groups in different postoperative periods were recorded. In Group I, swelling of eye lid, scratching and pawing were observed from the day of surgery upto the sixth postoperative day. Lacrimation was observed upto the ninth postoperative day. In Group II, swelling of eye lid, lacrimation, scratching and pawing were observed upto the sixth postoperative day. In Group I, corneal oedema was present in all the animals from the third postoperative day and in two animals it persisted upto the 12th day. In Group II, five animals had corneal oedema on the third day which persisted upto the sixth day in two animals and in one animal it was seen upto the ninth day. Vascularization in Group I was observed in all the animals on the sixth postoperative day and it persisted upto the 15th postoperative day in three animals. In Group II, vascularization was observed only in two animals between the third and sixth postoperative day. In Group I, third eye lid was found to cover 2/3rd the eyeball on the third day when the sutures were relieved for examination of the cornea and it was found to return to its normal position between ninth day to twelfth day. Congestion of the bulbar and palpebral conjunctivae and third eye lid were noticed between third day and sixth day in all the animals of both the groups. During the postoperative period, the rectal temperature (0 C), pulse rate and respiratory rate did not show any marked variation in both the groups. Lacrimal smear examination on different postoperative period revealed denuded epithelium and cellular debris. Fluorescein dye staining test during postoperative period in both the groups revealed signs of progressive healing of the keratectomy site in all the animals. The keratectomy site in Group I was bright green on the third postoperative day and became fluorescein negative on the ninth postoperative day except in one animal. In Group II, all the animals became fluorescein negative on the ninth postoperative day. The clarity of the cornea at the keratectomy site showed progressive clearing of the cornea during the postoperative period. In Group I, the keratectomy site became crystal clear on 27th day whereas in Group II it became crystal clear on 30th postoperative day. Haemogram during the postoperative period did not show significant variation in the haemoglobin content. The variation in the total leucocyte count and differential leucocyte count were within the normal range in both the groups. The eyeballs were enucleated from two animals each on the fifth, 10th, 15th and 30th day for gross and histopathological evalution. Gross examination of the enucleated eyeballs in Group 1 on the fifth day showed opacity, on the 10th day mild haziness and corneal oedema and on the 15th day, haziness at the keratectomy site. Vascularization of the cornea was noticed in both the specimens collected on the 10th day and in one specimen collected on the 15th day. The keratectomy site appeared crystal clear on the 30th postoperative day. In Group 11, the keratectomy site showed opacity on the fifth day, mild haziness on the 10th day and 15th day. Vascularization of the cornea was noted in both the specimen collected on the 10th day. The keratectomy site appeared crystal clear and lustrous on the 30th day. Microscopical examination of the corneal specimens in Group 1, revealed necrosis of epithelial cells and inflammatory oedema in the epithelium and stroma on the fifth day, epithelial facet formation and fibroplasia on the 10th day, presence of fibrovascular tissue in the stroma on the 15th day and active proliferation of epithelial cells, thickened epithelium and fibroplasia of the stroma on the 30th day. In Group 11, sliding of the wing cells into the wound from its margin were noticed with epithelial facet formation and fibroplasia of stroma on the fifth day, and increased fibroplasia on the 10th day. The corneal epithelium was completely replaced on the 15th day and thickened epithelium with active proliferation of epithelial cells and fibroplasia of stroma was observed on the 30th day specimens.ThesisItem Open Access Paravertebral anaesthesia in goats using bupivacaine hydrochloride(Department of Surgery, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 1994) John Martin, K D; KAU; Sarada Amma, TThe study was conducted in 15 apparently healthy Alpine – Malabari crossbred male goats of 9 to 12 months of age. Three goats were embalmed and used for dissection studies and the remaining 12 goats were used for nerve blocking trials, repeatedly at 10 days interval. The study was conducted in three parts. Part 1: Distribution of thoracic and lumbar spinal nerves in the abdominal region The origin, course and distribution of the 10th thoracic to the third lumbar spinal nerves were studied on both flank. The spinal nerves emerged through the intervertebral foramina, and divided into dorsal and ventral primary branches. The dorsal primary branch released the dorsomedial branch and continued as the dorsolateral branch. The former ramified into the multifidus dorsi and longissimus dorsi muscles and the latter ramified into the cutaneous truncimuscle and skin of the upper third of the body wall. The dorsolateral branch of the 10th, 11th and 12th thoracic spinal nerves supplied the serratus dorsalis caudalis muscles and the thoracolumbar fascia in their course. The ventral primary branch of the 10th, 11th and 12th thoracic spinal nerves gave away a ventrolateral branch which supplied the intercostal muscles, the origin of obliguus abdominis externus muscle and provided cutaneous innervation to the middle third of chest wall. The ventromedial branch terminated as fine branches between the transverse abdominis and rectus abdominis muscles, penetrated through the rectus abdominis muscle and the aponeuroses and supplied the skin on the ventral third of the chest wall. The ventral primary branches of the 13th thoracic, first and second lumbar spinal nerves coursed below the intertransversalis muscles, released ventrolateral branch and continued as the ventromedial branch. The former supplied the oblique muscles of abdomen and ramified into the skin and cutaneous muscles in the middle third of the flank. The latter terminated as fine branches, penetrated through the rectus abdominis muscle and the aponeuroses and formed the cutaneous innervation to the ventral abdominal wall. The ventral primary branch of the first and second lumbar spinal nerves have communicating branch, which traversed below the second lumbar transverse process. The ventral primary branch of the second lumbar spinal nerve gave away a small branch which ran caudad, below the lumbar transverse processes. The ventral primary branch of the third lumbar spinal nerve coursed back, below the lumbar transverse processes, between the psoas muscles. The lateral thoracic nerve of the brachial plexus supplied muscles on the ventral part of chest and abdomen and the cranial preputial muscle. One site (proximal site) was found suitable for blocking the 10th, 11th and 12th thoracic spinal nerves, while, two sites, proximal and distal, were found suitable for 13th thoracic, first, second and third lumbar spinal nerves. Part 11: The area desensitized by blocking individual spinal nerves supplying the flank region The 10th thoracic to the third lumbar spinal nerves were blocked individually in three different animals using 0.5 per cent bupivacaine hydrochloride solution and the area of analgesia was mapped. The 10th, 11th and 12th thoracic spinal nerves were blocked at the proximal site. The area of analgesia was similar, with S – shape, commencing from the dorsal midline to a point between the costal arch and the ventral midline. The 13th thoracic, first second and third lumbar spinal nerves were blocked at two sites, viz., Proximal site : The area of analgesia for the 13th thoracic, first and second lumbar spinal nerves commenced from the dorsal midline, and terminated lateral to the ventral midline. The area of analgesia of the third lumbar spinal nerve extended over the caudodorsal part of the flank. Distal site: The results of the study for each of the spinal nerves were inconsistent. Based on this study, it was concluded that, for anaesthetizing the flank, the 13th thoracic, first and second lumbar spinal nerves are to be blocked simultaneously, at the proximal site. Part 111: Anaesthesia of the flank The 13th thoracic, first and second lumbar spinal nerves were blocked simultaneously at the proximal site, in two groups (A and B) of six goats each using 0.5 per cent and 0.25 per cent solutions of bupivacaine hydrochloride respectively. The time for onset of analgesia was 2.83 + 0.87 min. in subgroup A and 2.67 + 0.21 min. in subgroup B. The duration of analgesia was 215.83 + 14.97 min. and 105.67 + 31.13 min. in subgroups A and B respectively. The extent of analgesia obtained in all the trials in both of the subgroups were similar. It extended over the entire flank from dorsal midline to the ventral midline, except : (a) a triangular area at the anterodorsal angle of flank (b) the posteriodorsal corner of the flank, in front of the external angle of ilium and (C) the preputial orifice and the skin around it. The rectal temperature, heart rate, rate of respiration, and the rate of rumen motility did not show significant variation throughout the experiment in both the subgroups. Laparotomy was conducted in two animals from each subgroup. Analgesia was satisfactory over the skin, muscles and peritoneum and muscle relaxation was adequate. In addition, the following symptoms were observed a. Scoliosis at the lumbar region towards the side of nerve block b. bulging of the anaesthetized flank and c. difficulty in bearing weight on the hind limb on the side of nerve block, with knuckling on progression. One animal (No. A6) developed symptoms of toxicity viz., lateral recumbency, dialatation of pupil, champing of jaw, frothy salivation,severe clonic convulsions of neck and limb muscles and paddling movements. The animal had a spontaneous recovery.ThesisItem Open Access Anaesthesia in pigeons and quails using ketamine and xylazine(Department of Surgery, College of Veterinary and Animal Science, Mannuthy, 1994) Lobo, Fabiana; KAU; Abraham Varkey, CThe present study was undertaken to assess the efficacy of (1) xylazine, (ii) ketamine hydrochloride and (iii) xylazine followed by ketamine hydrochloride, for anaesthetizing pigeons and quails, The study was conducted in 30 pigeons (Columba livia) weighing 120-260 g and 30 quails (Coturnix coturnix japonica) weighing 120-180 g. The birds were divided into two groups, Group I (30 pigeons) and Group II (30 quails). Group I and II were further divided into three sub-groups, viz, A, B and C, each consisting of 10 birds. The drugs were administered intraperitoneally in all the sub- groups at the rate of (i) Xylazine 10 mg per kg bodyweight in sub-group A, (ii) ketamine hydrochloride 150 mg per kg body weight in sub-group B and (iii) xylazine 5.0 mg per kg bodyweight followed by ketamine hydrochloride 75mg per kg bodyweight in sub – group C. During the onset of anaesthesia, loss of balance, ruffled feathers, sitting posture, recumbency abolition/sluggishness of pedal reflex were observed in Groups I and II. In addition dropping of wings was noticed in subgroup II A, torticollis and loss of righting reflex in subgroup I B and IIB, fluttering and dropping of wings, and dropping of beak in sub-group I B, dropping of wings, tortocollis, loss of righting reflex in subgroup I C and II C and fluttering of wings and dropping of beak in subgroup II C. Corneal reflex, palpebral reflex and third eyelid movement peristed during anaesthesia. Eyes remained closed in both pigeons and quails during anaesthesia. The time for induction was 12.70 + 0.40 min., 7.60 + 0.42 min. and 6.80 + 0.34 min in subgroup A, B and C respectively in pigeons and 13.10 + 0.43 min, 5.50 + 0.15 min and 8.30 + 0.31 min in subgroups A, B and C respectively in quails. The duration of anaesthesia was 47.70 + 1.54 min 37.80 + 2.88 min and 62.00 + 1.15 min in subgroups A, B and C respectively in pigeons and 80.40 + 1.96 min, 99.90 + 2.86 min and 202.50 + 7.62 min in sub groups A, B and C respectively in quails. The duration of recovery was 164.80 + 2.82 min 87.70 + 2.98 min and 85.10 + 2.72 min in subgroups A,B and C respectively in pigeons and 99.90 + 5.70 min 97.50 + 4.66 min and 73.80 + 3.19 min in subgroups A, B and C respectively in quails. Significant reduction in the temperature was observed during anaesthesia in all the subgroups. Respiration rate showed significant decrease during anaesthesia in all the three subgroups in pigeons and sub-groups A and C in quails whereas no significant reduction in respiration rate was observed with ketamine hydrochloride in quails upto 135 min. However, significant increase was noticed at 150 min and the third hour. Significant decrease in the total erythrocyte count was observed in all the subgroups except in sub-group I A, wherein no significant variation in the count was noticed.Significant decrease in the total leukocyte was observed in all the subgroups except subgroup II A where no significant variation in the count was observed.Significant reduction in the lymphocyte count was observed in all the subgroups. Significant increase in the heterophil count was observed in sub-groups IC, IIA, IIB and IIC but there was significant decrease in sub-group I B, and there was no significant variation in subgroups I A. Significant increase in the eosinophil count was seen in all the subgroups. The haemoglobin content was significantly reduced in groups I and II.Incising and suturing the skin and the wall of the crop did not evince any response but slight body movement was observed in subgroup II A.Mild fatty changes in the liver and congestion on the surface of the kidneys were observed in all the birds of both the groups.