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Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur
The history of agricultural education in Kerala can be traced back to the year 1896 when a scheme was evolved in the erstwhile Travancore State to train a few young men in scientific agriculture at the Demonstration Farm, Karamana, Thiruvananthapuram, presently, the Cropping Systems Research Centre under Kerala Agricultural University. Agriculture was introduced as an optional subject in the middle school classes in the State in 1922 when an Agricultural Middle School was started at Aluva, Ernakulam District. The popularity and usefulness of this school led to the starting of similar institutions at Kottarakkara and Konni in 1928 and 1931 respectively.
Agriculture was later introduced as an optional subject for Intermediate Course in 1953. In 1955, the erstwhile Government of Travancore-Cochin started the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, Thiruvananthapuram and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences at Mannuthy, Thrissur for imparting higher education in agricultural and veterinary sciences, respectively. These institutions were brought under the direct administrative control of the Department of Agriculture and the Department of Animal Husbandry, respectively. With the formation of Kerala State in 1956, these two colleges were affiliated to the University of Kerala. The post-graduate programmes leading to M.Sc. (Ag), M.V.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees were started in 1961, 1962 and 1965 respectively.
On the recommendation of the Second National Education Commission (1964-66) headed by Dr. D.S. Kothari, the then Chairman of the University Grants Commission, one Agricultural University in each State was established. The State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) were established in India as an integral part of the National Agricultural Research System to give the much needed impetus to Agriculture Education and Research in the Country. As a result the Kerala Agricultural University (KAU) was established on 24th February 1971 by virtue of the Act 33 of 1971 and started functioning on 1st February 1972. The Kerala Agricultural University is the 15th in the series of the SAUs.
In accordance with the provisions of KAU Act of 1971, the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, were brought under the Kerala Agricultural University. In addition, twenty one agricultural and animal husbandry research stations were also transferred to the KAU for taking up research and extension programmes on various crops, animals, birds, etc.
During 2011, Kerala Agricultural University was trifurcated into Kerala Veterinary and Animal Sciences University (KVASU), Kerala University of Fisheries and Ocean Studies (KUFOS) and Kerala Agricultural University (KAU).
Now the University has seven colleges (four Agriculture, one Agricultural Engineering, one Forestry, one Co-operation Banking & Management), six RARSs, seven KVKs, 15 Research Stations and 16 Research and Extension Units under the faculties of Agriculture, Agricultural Engineering and Forestry. In addition, one Academy on Climate Change Adaptation and one Institute of Agricultural Technology offering M.Sc. (Integrated) Climate Change Adaptation and Diploma in Agricultural Sciences respectively are also functioning in Kerala Agricultural University.
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ThesisItem Open Access Application of polymerase chain reaction for rapid evaluation of hygienic status of milk(Department of Veterinary Public Health, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences,Mannuthy, 2008) Deepa Mary, J J; KAU; Sunil, BRapid assessment of the bacterial load and detection of pathogens in milk is of public health significance. Molecular detection of pathogenic microorganisms is based on DNA amplification of the target pathogens. Therefore efficient extraction of DNA directly from milk is a major step. DNA could be efficiently extracted directly from milk by a prior sample preparation so as to remove the fat and milk proteins. The phenol chloroform method of DNA extraction was modified to reduce the time require for the procedure. The use of lysozyme helped the release of DNA from lysed gram positive Staphylococcus aureus. The extracted DNA was used as template in PCR. PCR was carried out with already published primers. PCR was modified with the use of PCR buffer containing PCR facilitators (BSA and Tween 20) to overcome PCR inhibition. The standardized procedure was used to assess the bacterial load and to detect Escherichia coli and S. aureus directly from milk. To assess the bacterial load dilutions of milk were made upto10-10. DNA was extracted from each dilution with which PCR was carried out with primers specific for Pseudomonas. Aerobic Plate Count was also done for the same samples and compared with PCR. It could be concluded that the approximate APC of the milk sample by PCR is next lower dilution to the dilution giving the PCR amplification. The total time taken for the analysis was approximately five hours. Extraction of DNA and PCR was done with primers for detection of E. coli from the same milk samples and compared with culture. Percentage of samples positive both by culture and PCR was 50 and negative by both methods were 30. Twenty percentage of the samples were positive by PCR and negative by culture. Extraction of DNA and PCR was done with primers for detection of S. aureus from the same milk samples and compared with culture. Percentage of samples positive both by culture and PCR was 60 and negative by both methods were 20. Twenty percentage of the samples were negative by PCR and positive by culture. Hence, protocol developed for detection of S. aureus needs further refinement to take care of false negative results by PCR, probably due to the low number of organisms present in milk.ThesisItem Open Access Assessment of bacterial quality and shelf life pasteurized milk(Department of Veterinery Public Health, College of Veterinary and Animal Science, Mannuthy, 2007) Asha, K; KAU; Nanu, EIn the present study raw and pasteurized milk samples were collected from two processing plants viz., DP1 and DP2 and pasteurized milk from retail shops. A total of 254 samples were analyzed for the bacterial quality by estimating various bacterial counts and also assessed the presence of certain bacteria of public health importance. The bacterial, physical and organoleptic qualities of pasteurized milk samples from two dairies stored under refrigeration (4 ± 1oC) were evaluated. Raw milk revealed an inferior bacterial quality with 50 per cent samples graded as fair (based on total viable count) and 85.7 per cent as poor quality (based on coliform count). The total viable count from both dairies was obtained at the level of 7 log10 cfu/ml but coliform count was high in the samples obtained from DP1 (3.34 ± 0.05 log10 cfu/ml). The psychrotrophic count and faecal streptococcal count in the samples belonging to both sources were at the level of 7 and 3 log10 cfu/ml, respectively. Bacteria of public health significance like Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas was detected from a few samples. Pasteurization reduced the level of total viable count, coliform count, psychrotrophic count and faecal streptococcal count to a highly significant (P<0.01) level. Pasteurized milk under refrigeration (4 ± 1oC) showed an increase in total viable count and psychrotrophic count throughout the storage period with a difference of more than 3 log with that of fresh sample. However, coliform count, Escherichia coli count, and faecal streptococcal count of samples belonging to DP1 initially showed increasing tendency up to six days and thereafter the counts decreased. The increase in total viable count, coliform count, Escherichia coli count, psychrotrophic count and faecal streptococcal count between zero and 10th day from DP2 was 4.8, 1.95, 2.08, 4.78 and 2.32 log10 cfu/ml, respectively. The increase in the counts during storage may lead to the reduction in shelf life due to bacterial deterioration of milk. Isolates of Escherichia coli was obtained from DP1 on all days except eighth and 10th day. A total of six isolates were obtained from DP2. The isolates belonged to O116 (3), O22, O46, O65 (2), O95 and the rest were rough variety. Staphylococcus aureus was also isolated from two samples stored on sixth day and three from the samples stored on zero, second and fourth day, respectively (DP1). From DP2, three isolates were obtained from the samples stored on 10th day and one from fresh samples. A total of 22.62 and 20.24 per cent Pseudomonas were isolated from DP1 and DP2, respectively and the isolates were identified as Pseudomonas putida, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Pseudomonas flourescens. Sensory and physico-chemical (COB test) analyses of refrigerated milk samples showed an overall reduction in the score of colour and appearance, flavour, odour and body as the storage period increased. The mean total scores from DP1 revealed that the samples were of excellent quality for up to second day of storage. The sensory quality of the samples stored on fourth day was good and then the quality of milk remained fair till eighth day and on 10th day the quality became poor. In DP2 samples had excellent quality for upto second day of storage. The sensory quality of the sample stored up to sixth day was good and thereafter the quality of milk remained as fair till the end of storage period. COB test of samples from DP1 showed positive test on all samples stored on 10th day. However, one sample stored on day six was COB test positive. The samples belonging to DP2 showed that three samples stored on 10th day and one sample stored on eighth day was COB positive. The bacterial profile of the retail milk samples of the brands A, B, C, D, E and F was assessed and the samples belonging to the brand D had highest mean total viable count (5.94 ± 0.09 log10 cfu/ml), psychrotrophic count (5.09 ± 0.16 log10 cfu/ml) and faecal streptococcal count (2.87 ± 0.24 log10 cfu/ml). Highest coliform count was seen in the samples of brand A (2.40 ± 0.14 log10 cfu/ml) and Escherichia coli count (3.44 ± 0.72 log10 cfu/ml) in samples of the brand C. Low counts especially total viable count (4.89 ± 0.79 log10 cfu/ml) and coliform count (1.19 ± 0.42 log10 cfu/ml) were seen in the samples of the brand F. Escherichia coli were detected from 20.8 per cent samples and the isolates consisted of the serotypes O46, O65, O95, O116, O166 and O171. Out of 15 isolates obtained six showed a positive congo red reaction indicating their property of invasiveness. Staphylococcus aureus was isolated from only six samples (6.94 per cent). All retail milk samples were also tested for the isolation and identification of Pseudomonas and the organism was isolated from 16 (22.22 per cent) samples. The isolates were identified as Pseudomonas putida (7), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (6) and Pseudomonas flourescens (3). Polymerase Chain reaction was employed to identify and confirm the Escherichia coli isolates obtained from the milk samples and a 366 bp product was obtained.ThesisItem Open Access Microbial quality and safety of raw milk with reference to sources of contamination(Department of Veterinary Public Health, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 2007) Gini, George; KAU; Nanu, EIn the present investigation a total of 180 raw milk samples, consisted of 108 individual milk samples obtained from farmers belonging to three co- operative societies (S1, S2 and S3) and 72 pooled milk samples from the three societies were collected and evaluated the microbial quality. The samples were also tested to detect the presence of Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus and Yersinia. The isolated Escherichia coli cultures were confirmed using Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) technique. The pooled milk samples obtained from the societies were also tested to detect the adulterants and preservatives added in the milk. During the investigation the factors contributing the bacterial contamination of milk from various sources were also evaluated to identify the critical control points. Statistical analysis of the data revealed highly significant difference (P<0.01) in microbial counts of individual samples of the three sources. The overall mean total viable count, coliform count, Escherichia coli count, faecal streptococcal count and yeast and mould count was 6.01 ± 0.07, 4.44 ± 0.07, 0.86 ± 0.11, 3.14 ± 0.10 and 2.09 ± 0.12 log10 cfu/ml, respectively. Samples of S2 had the highest mean count on the basis of total viable count, coliform count, Escherichia coli count and faecal streptococcal count. Milk samples from S2 revealed maximum contamination. Escherichia coli was not detected in 63.89 per cent of individual samples. Analysis of the data revealed significant (P<0.05) and positive correlation between total viable count and faecal streptococcal count and also between total viable count and coliform count. A similar correlation was observed between coliform count with faecal streptococcal count. Microbial analysis of milk samples collected from six farmers of S1 revealed that samples from F1 had highest mean total viable count (6.29 ± 0.15 log10 cfu/ml) and the lowest count was observed in samples of F5 (5.58 ± 0.37 log10 cfu/ml). Highest mean coliform count (4.77 ± 0.19 log10 cfu/ml) and yeast and mould count (2.74 ± 0.25 log10 cfu/ml) were seen in the samples of F3, whereas lowest coliform count (3.52 ± 0.77 log10 cfu/ml) and yeast and mould count (1.75 ±0.56 log10 cfu/ml) was observed in the samples of F2 and F5, respectively. Samples obtained from F6 did not revealed the presence of Escherichia coli, but the count was highest in the samples of F5 (1.50 ±0.49 log10 cfu/ml). The highest (3.97 ± 0.09 log10 cfu/ml) and lowest (1.80 ± 0.59 log10 cfu/ml) faecal streptococcal count was observed in the samples of F6 and F5, respectively. Critical difference test of the data revealed that none of the bacterial association was significant in the samples of S1. Microbial analysis of individual milk samples collected from the farmers of S2 revealed that samples from F2 had highest mean total viable count (7.08 ± 0.20 log10 cfu/ml) and coliform count (5.33 ± 0.15 log10 cfu/ml) and the samples from F5 showed lowest values for the above two counts. Similarly, the bacterial counts, viz., faecal streptococcal count (4.10 ± 0.18 log10 cfu/ml) and yeast and mould count (2.99 ± 0.24 log10 cfu/ml) were highest in the samples of F3. Lowest values for faecal streptococcal count (3.12 ± 0.31 log10 cfu/ml) and yeast and mould count (0.96 ± 0.61 log10 cfu/ml) were in the samples of F4 and F6, respectively. Samples obtained from F2 did not revealed the presence of Escherichia coli, but the count was highest in the samples of F6 (2.23 ± 0.49 log10 cfu/ml). Analysis of the data of the samples obtained from S2 revealed that significant (P<0.05) and positive correlation between total viable count and faecal streptococcal count and also between total viable count and coliform count. A similar correlation was observed between coliform count with faecal streptococcal count and yeast and mould count. Analysis of variance test of the data of the samples belonging to the farmers of S3 revealed highly significant (P<0.01) difference between the mean total viable count and coliform count. The samples of F2 had lowest total viable count (4.85 ± 0.18 log10 cfu/ml), but the highest count was in the samples of F6 (6.66 ± 0.38 log10 cfu/ml). The samples belonging to F4 had the highest mean coliform count (4.96 ± 0.17 log10 cfu/ml) while the lowest count was observed in samples of F1 (3.74 ± 0.13 log10 cfu/ml). The highest mean Escherichia coli count (0.80 ± 0.51 log10 cfu/ml) was seen in the samples belonging to F1 and F5. The samples belonging to F2, F4 and F6 had the mean count of 0.33 ± 0.33 log10 cfu/ml. The highest mean faecal streptococcal count (3.66 ± 0.14log10 cfu/ml) was seen in the samples of F4. The samples of F3 had the lowest mean count (2.13 ± 0.68 log10 cfu/ml). The samples belonging to F3 had the highest mean yeast and mould count (2.77 ± 0.11 log10 cfu/ml) and the lowest mean count was observed (1.41 ± 0.64 log10 cfu/ml) in the samples from F1. A significant (P<0.05) and positive correlation was observed only between the total viable count and coliform count of the samples of S3. Analysis of variance test of the data revealed highly significant (P<0.01) difference in the bacterial count of the 72 pooled milk samples obtained from the three sources. The overall mean total viable count, coliform count, Escherichia coli count, faecal streptococcal count and yeast and mould count was 6.19 ± 0.09, 4.65 ± 0.09, 1.27 ± 0.16, 3.50 ± 0.06 and 2.37± 0.11 log10 cfu/ml, respectively. Escherichia coli was not detected in 50.00 per cent of pooled samples. Samples of S2 had the highest mean count based on total viable count, coliform Count and Faecal Streptococcal Count. Escherichia coli count and yeast and mould count showed highest values in the samples of S3. Significant (P<0.05) and positive correlation was observed only between total viable count and coliform Count of the pooled milk samples. Escherichia coli was isolated from 36.11 per cent individual samples and 50.00 per cent of pooled milk samples. Fifteen isolates from individual samples and eighteen isolates from pooled milk samples were serotyped. The serotypes obtained were O12, O29, O60, O68, O75, O79, O96, O107, O116, O131, O160 and O172. Twelve isolates each from individual samples were untypable and rough. Among the pooled samples three isolates were untypable and fifteen isolates were rough. Congo red binding property was shown by nine and sixteen serotyped isolates obtained from individual and pooled milk samples, respectively. Staphylococcus aureus was isolated from 40.74 per cent of individual and 34.72 per cent of pooled milk samples. Yersinia was isolated from 22.22 per cent of individual samples and 29.17 per cent of pooled milk samples. From the individual samples, five isolates of Yersinia enterocolitica was obtained. Yersinia frederiksenii, Yersinia intermedia, Yersinia aldovae and Yersinia kristensenii was isolated from ten, five, two and 1 of the individual milk samples. Yersinia pseudotuberculosis was obtained from one of the individual sample. From the pooled milk samples, three isolates each of Yersinia kristensenii and Yersinia aldovae was obtained. Yersinia intermedia and Yersinia frederiksenii was isolated from eight and six samples, respectively. Yersinia enterocolitica was obtained from one of the sample. Grading of individual milk samples based on total viable count as per the standards prescribed by Indian Standards (1977) revealed that 34.26 per cent samples were graded as good. The per cent of samples graded as fair was 32.41. Only 15.74 per cent samples was graded as very good, whereas 17.59 per cent was graded as poor. The highest (40.28) per cent of pooled milk samples was graded under the category fair, while 9.72, 31.94 and 18.06 per cent samples were graded as very good, good and poor, respectively. The various critical control points of microbial contamination of milk was evaluated by collecting samples of air, water, hand wash of the milker or milk handler and utensil wash and subjecting to estimation of the bacterial load. Hand wash was found to be a major source of contamination. The highest microbial count in the samples of water, utensil wash and hand wash was observed in the samples obtained from S2. The higher mean microbial count in the milk samples of S2 might be attributed to the contamination from these sources. Adulterants (starch and cane sugar) and preservatives (carbonates, formaldehyde and boric acid) were not detected in any of the 72 pooled milk samples examined. The Escherichia coli isolates obtained from raw milk were confirmed by Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) and the analysis of the electrophoresed gel under UV transilluminator revealed the presence of a 366 bp band in 93.33 per cent isolates.ThesisItem Open Access Assessment of microbial quality, adulterants and preservatives in pasteurized milk(Department of Veterinary Public Health, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 2008) Bhagyalakshmi, P S; KAU; Nanu, EIn the present study 200 pasteurized milk samples were collected from the retail shops of Thrissur and Palakkad districts. From Thrissur district, 20 samples each were collected from five brands viz., A, B, C, D and E, and an equal number of samples were obtained from the brands F, G, H, I and J of Palakkad district. All the samples were analyzed for the microbial quality by estimating various bacterial counts and yeast and mould count and also assessed the presence of certain pathogenic and spoilage bacteria. The milk samples were also tested to detect the presence of adulterants viz., starch and cane sugar and preservatives like carbonates and formaldehyde. The study revealed that the samples belonging to Thrissur district had an overall mean total viable count, coliform count, Escherichia coli count, psychrotrophic count, faecal streptococcal count and yeast and mould count of 5.08 ± 0.05, 2.89 ± 0.09, 0.53 ± 0.11, 5.30 ± 0.01, 3.40 ± 0.14 and 1.89 ± 0.08 log10 cfu/ml, respectively. The corresponding count in the samples of Palakkad district was 5.24 ± 0.04, 3.01 ± 0.20, 0.78 ± 0.12, 4.99 ± 0.05, 3.20 ± 0.07 and 2.03 ± 0.09 log10 cfu/ml. According to the total viable count limit prescribed by BIS (1992) 50 per cent samples from brand E were graded as satisfactory and the samples from all other brands were graded as unsatisfactory. The highest mean total viable count was seen in the samples of brand A (5.39 ± 0.04 log10 cfu/ml). Of the samples collected from Thrissur district, the lowest count (4.51 ± 0.08 log10 cfu/ml) was recorded from the samples of brand E. The samples collected from I brand of Palakkad district had the highest mean total viable count (5.35 ± 0.05 log10 cfu/ml) and the lowest count (5.19 ± 0.09 log10 cfu/ml) was observed in the samples of brand G. Of the 100 samples collected from Thrissur district, the samples belonging to brand A had the highest mean coliform count (3.40 ± 0.17 log10 cfu/ml). An equal number of samples collected from Palakkad district revealed that the highest mean count (4.39 ± 0.02 log10 cfu/ml) was observed in the samples belonging to brand I. According to the bacterial count limit prescribed by BIS (1992) 70 per cent of the samples from brand H were graded as satisfactory and the samples belonging to all other brands were graded as unsatisfactory. The overall mean coliform count of the samples belonging to various brands from Thrissur and Palakkad districts were at the level of two and three log10 cfu/ml, respectively. The samples belonging to brand E of Thrissur and brand H of Palakkad had the lowest mean count. The samples collected from brand A of Thrissur district had the highest mean Escherichia coli count (0.92 ± 0.31 log10 cfu/ml) and the lowest count (0.10 ± 0.10 log10 cfu/ml) was observed in the samples belonging to the brand E. Among the samples collected from Palakkad district, the highest mean count (1.54 ± 0.11 log10 cfu/ml) was observed in the samples of the brand I and the lowest count (0.43 ± 0.23 log10 cfu/ml) was seen in the samples belonging to the brand H. The highest mean psychrotrophic count (5.39 ± 0.02 log10 cfu/ml) was seen in the samples belonging to brand C of Thrissur district and the lowest count (5.29 ± 0.05 log10 cfu/ml) was observed in the samples of the brand B. Among the samples from Palakkad district, the highest mean count (5.43 ± 0.01 log10 cfu/ml) was seen in the samples of the brand I and the lowest count (4.63 ± 0.10 log10 cfu/ml) was observed in the samples of the brand H. Of the samples collected from Thrissur district, the lowest mean faecal streptococcal count (2.95 ± 0.17 log10 cfu/ml) was seen in samples belonging to brand C and the highest count (3.78 ± 0.16 log10 cfu/ml) was observed in the samples of the brand B. Among the samples belonging to various brands of Palakkad district, the lowest mean count (2.88 ± 0.12 log10 cfu/ml) was seen in samples of the brand G and the highest count (3.51 ± 0.21 log10 cfu/ml) was observed in the samples of the brand I. Among the samples collected from the five brands of Thrissur district, the highest mean yeast and mould count (2.46 ± 0.17 log 10 cfu/ml) was seen in the samples of the brand A and the lowest count (1.35 ± 0.08 log 10 cfu/ml) was observed in the samples of the brand E. Of the samples belonging to the five brands of Palakkad, the highest mean count was seen in the samples of the brand J (2.40 ± 0.24 log10 cfu/ml) and the lowest count was observed in the samples of the brand F (1.66 ± 0.09 log10 cfu/ml). A highly significant (P<0.01) difference was noticed among the mean total viable count, coliform count, faecal streptoccal count and yeast and mould count of various brands of pasteurized milk from Thrissur district. Similarly a highly significant (P<0.01) difference was noticed among the mean coliform count, Escherichia coli count and psychrotrophic count of the samples belong to the five brands of pasteurized milk from Palakkad district. Escherichia coli was isolated from 10 per cent of the samples belonging to Thrissur and the isolates consisted of serotype of O4 (1), rough strains (2) and untypable strains (7). The organism was isolated from 11 per cent of the samples collected from Palakkad. One of the isolates was serotyped as O4 and three isolates were serotyped as O60. One isolate fell in the class rough and six isolates were untypable. Two isolates each from Thrissur and Palakkad districts revealed congo red binding charecteristics. Staphylococcus aureus could not isolate from the samples obtained from Thrissur and Palakkad districts. Pseudomonas organism was isolated from four and six per cent of the samples from Thrissur and Palakkad. The isolates were identified as Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Pseudomonas flourescens, Pseudomonas cepacia and Pseudomonas putida. Bacillus cereus was isolated from three samples obtained from Thrissur district and two samples belonging to Palakkad district. None of the samples from Thrissur and Palakkad districts revealed the presence of the adulterants like starch and cane sugar and preservative like bicarbonates. But formaldehyde was detected from 19 per cent of the samples from Thrissur and 47 per cent of the samples from Palakkad.