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Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur
The history of agricultural education in Kerala can be traced back to the year 1896 when a scheme was evolved in the erstwhile Travancore State to train a few young men in scientific agriculture at the Demonstration Farm, Karamana, Thiruvananthapuram, presently, the Cropping Systems Research Centre under Kerala Agricultural University. Agriculture was introduced as an optional subject in the middle school classes in the State in 1922 when an Agricultural Middle School was started at Aluva, Ernakulam District. The popularity and usefulness of this school led to the starting of similar institutions at Kottarakkara and Konni in 1928 and 1931 respectively.
Agriculture was later introduced as an optional subject for Intermediate Course in 1953. In 1955, the erstwhile Government of Travancore-Cochin started the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, Thiruvananthapuram and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences at Mannuthy, Thrissur for imparting higher education in agricultural and veterinary sciences, respectively. These institutions were brought under the direct administrative control of the Department of Agriculture and the Department of Animal Husbandry, respectively. With the formation of Kerala State in 1956, these two colleges were affiliated to the University of Kerala. The post-graduate programmes leading to M.Sc. (Ag), M.V.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees were started in 1961, 1962 and 1965 respectively.
On the recommendation of the Second National Education Commission (1964-66) headed by Dr. D.S. Kothari, the then Chairman of the University Grants Commission, one Agricultural University in each State was established. The State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) were established in India as an integral part of the National Agricultural Research System to give the much needed impetus to Agriculture Education and Research in the Country. As a result the Kerala Agricultural University (KAU) was established on 24th February 1971 by virtue of the Act 33 of 1971 and started functioning on 1st February 1972. The Kerala Agricultural University is the 15th in the series of the SAUs.
In accordance with the provisions of KAU Act of 1971, the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, were brought under the Kerala Agricultural University. In addition, twenty one agricultural and animal husbandry research stations were also transferred to the KAU for taking up research and extension programmes on various crops, animals, birds, etc.
During 2011, Kerala Agricultural University was trifurcated into Kerala Veterinary and Animal Sciences University (KVASU), Kerala University of Fisheries and Ocean Studies (KUFOS) and Kerala Agricultural University (KAU).
Now the University has seven colleges (four Agriculture, one Agricultural Engineering, one Forestry, one Co-operation Banking & Management), six RARSs, seven KVKs, 15 Research Stations and 16 Research and Extension Units under the faculties of Agriculture, Agricultural Engineering and Forestry. In addition, one Academy on Climate Change Adaptation and one Institute of Agricultural Technology offering M.Sc. (Integrated) Climate Change Adaptation and Diploma in Agricultural Sciences respectively are also functioning in Kerala Agricultural University.
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ThesisItem Open Access Structure and function of the shell gland in Japanese Quail under different levels of dietary calcium(Department of Physiology and Biochemistry, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences,Mannuthy, 1994) Philomina, P T; KAU; Ramakrishna Pillai, M GLiterature available on the physiological aspects of egg production in Japaneese quail is scanity and many lacunae exist in the knowledge of various mechanisms involved in the formation of egg. Under the modern practice of intensive quail husbandry it is often found that the egg shells of Japanese quail are becoming thinner, more gragile and easily broken. Consequently, safety in transportation and marketability of these eggs are considerably reduced. Hence it was thought worthwhile to investigate some of the factors involved in egg production, more especially the egg shell formation. In the present investigation attempts were made to elucidate the mechanism of the egg shell formation with respect to the structural and functional peculiarities of the shell gland in Japaneese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica) calcium. The study envisaged histological, histochemical peculiarities of the shell gland; the mineral (calcium and inorganic phosphorus) and enzyme (ALP and ACP) profile of the plasma and shell gland. The influence of dietary calcium on the body weight, development of the oviduct, egg production and egg shell quality was also investigated. Japanese quails attained sexual maturity early at the sixth week of age, by which time they attained a body weight of 131.8 + 0.600 g and started egg production. The birds grew at a faster rate in the early weeks, came into peak production at the 16th week of age, and the trend continued even at the 24th week of age, with a body weight of 198.033 + 0.220 g for good production. The length and weight of the oviduct increased from the sixth to 24th week of age. The variation in length and weight of the shell gland from the 16th and 24th week was marginal. Growth rate was almost marginal from the 16th week onwards. Histologically the quail shell gland showed similar structure to that of the domestic fowl except for the tunca muscularis. The inner circular muscle layer was thicker and outer longitudinal layer was thinner. As age advanced, at the 16th and 24th week of age the mucosal folding were numerous. The inner circular muscle layer became thicker and even this layer invaded the lamina propria and the vascularity in the connective tissue core of the tunica muscularis increased. The egg quality traits such as egg weight, shell weight, shell thickness, shape index and specific gravity markedly improved as age advanced from the sixth to 16th week. From the 16th to 24th week the egg quality was lowered with an increase in egg weight, lowering of shell weight, shell thickness and specific gravity. Dietary calcium significantly influenced the body weight, egg production, shell quality,histology of the shell gland and mineral and enzyme profile of plasma. Birds exhibited optimum growth, and production at higher pre-laying and layer dietary calcium levels. Prelaying dietary calcium level of 0.7 to 0.9 percent and layer level of 3 percent were found to be optimum in quail ration. As far as the oviduct development is concerned, pre-laying dietary calcium had negligible influence, whereas layer dietary calcium level of 2.5 percent was just sufficient for optimum development of oviduct/ shell gland. Histologically the only difference noticed in highest (3.5%) layer dietary calcium fed quails was the increased vascularity in their connective tissue core of the lamina propria of the shell gland. There was a positive correlation between dietary calcium (pre-laying and layer) level and plasma calcium concentration at the sixth, and 16th week of age. But at the 24th week of age only layer dietary calcium induced such a relationship. As age advanced, pre-laying dietary calcium became insignificant. In the case of plasma inorganic phosphate concentration, there existed a negative correlation to that of pre-laying and layer dietary calcium levels at all the age groups of quails. It may be emphasized in this context that the extent of the negative correlation existing between plasma inorganic phosphate and prelaying and layer dietary calcium levels was considerably lower. The concentration of calcium and inorganic phosphorous in the plasma and shell gland were uninfluenced by the age. The shell gland concentration of calcium and inorganic phosphorous was lower compared to their plasma level. These minerals were not stored in the shell gland for shell calcification. At the time of calcification calcium was transferred from the plasma (blood) to the shell gland and then to the shell. Dietary calcium significantly influenced the plasma concentration. Plasma enzyme concentration of ALP and ACP was negatively correlated with dietary calcium (pre-laying and layer) levels, whereas the shell gland ALP concentration was uninfluenced by the dietary calcium and age and its concentration was very low compared to those of plasma ALP and shell gland ACP. Shell gland ALP was unimportant in shell formation. Histochemical localization of the shell gland ALP was in confirmation with that of quantitative estimation. Shell gland ACP content was comparatively higher than ALP, which was also in agreement with histochemical localization. Shell gland ACP may be involved in the transfer of calcium from the plasma to the shell through the shell gland mucosa, since its level in the shell gland was higher and influenced by dietary calcium levels were related to the cyclic medullary bone formation and resorption which is a normal feature in laying birds. Variations in the dietary calcium induced changes in the concentration of plasma minerals and enzymes supported the view that dietary calcium is important for proper shell formation. Higher level of dietary calcium improved the egg shell quality, egg production and body weight. Pre-laying dietary calcium level of 0.7 to 0.9 percent and layer level of 3 percent were found to be optimum in quail ration.ThesisItem Open Access Effect of induced stress and antistress agents on the physiological parameters in broiler chicken(Department of Physiology, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 2003) Srinivas Reddy, Bellur; KAU; Philomina, P TIn modern poultry production system various factors namely floor space reduction, feed and water restriction, high environmental temperature, vaccination, medication, debeaking etc. have the potential to induce stress in poultry which results in poor performance as well as reduction in immune response as the nutrients normally utilized for growth and production are diverted to counteract the stress and survival. The study was undertaken with the objective of evaluating the influence of induced stress and anti stress agents (dietary ascorbic acid and Zeetress®) on various physiological, biochemical and production parameters in broiler chicken. Fifty six numbers of day old broiler chicks (Vencob) procured from a commercial hatchery were reared in battery cages under the standard managemental conditions upto four weeks of age. Then they were randomly selected and divided into seven groups (G-I to G- VII) with eight birds per group. The birds in different groups were as follows: G-I as the control, G-II as floor space reduced group (33%), G-III as floor space reduced group supplemented with Zeetress® @ 0.01%, G-IV as floor space reduced group supplemented with ascorbic acid @ 0.02%, G- V as 30% feed restriction, G- VI as 30% feed restriction with dietary supplementation of Zeetress® @ 0.0 I % and G- VII as 30% feed restriction with dietary supplementation of ascorbic acid @ 0.02%. The birds were maintained in battery cages under standard managemental conditions on broiler ration with the exception of floor space reduction, feed restriction and incorporation of dietary anti stress agents. Production parameters such as weekly weight gain and feed efficiency were analyzed on weekly basis. Blood was collected with suitable anticoagulants, initially at fourth and then at sixth and eighth week of age. Whole blood was utilized for analysis of haematological parameters, heterophil: lyrnphocyte (H:L) ratio and mitogen induced lymphocyte proliferation test. Plasma was utilized for biochemical analyses i.e. for protein profile, lipid profile and estimation of glucose, uric acid and cortisol. The data were statistically analysed by appropriate tests. The birds of G- V group showed significantly lower values of TEC, Hb, VPRC and TLC at sixth and eight week of age. The dietary supplementation of Zeetress® and ascorbic acid in floor space reduced groups feed restricted groups did not show any significant influence on the values of TEC, Hb, VPRC, ESR, TLC when compared to the birds of respective stress induced groups G-II and G- V. The birds of stress induced groups G-II and G- V had lower lymphocyte count and higher heterophil and basophil count, higher H:L ratio and suppressed mitogen induced lyrnphocyte proliferation (probably due to a rise in level of plasma corticosteroids as a result of stress response) when compared to birds of G-J group, both at sixth and eighth week of age. Dietary supplementation of Zeetress® and ascorbic acid in floor space reduced groups and feed restricted groups elevated the lymphocyte counts, suppressed heterophil and" basophil counts, H:L ratio and considerably improved the mitogen induced lymphoblastogenic response both at sixth and eighth week of age. In the present study the birds of G-II and G- V group had no significant variation in plasma protein profile and glucose levels but had increased plasma concentration of ortisol (probably due to stress induced adrenal hyper activity) and decreased uric acid, when compared to birds of control group G-I, both at sixth and eighth week of age. Dietary Zeetress® and ascorbic acid supplementation in floor space reduced groups and feed restricted groups showed a lower plasma concentration of cortisol both at sixth and eighth week of age, and significantly increased uric acid at eighth week of age. Dietary supplementation of Zeetress® and ascorbic acid in floor space reduced groups decreased plasma concentration of cholesterol both at sixth and eighth week of age and total lipids at sixth week of age. In birds of feed restricted G- V group plasma concentration of cholesterol, triglycerides and total lipids were lower both at sixth and eighth week of age when compared to birds of control group G-I. The dietary supplementation of Zeetress® and ascorbic acid in feed restricted groups had no significant influence on plasma concentration of cholesterol both at sixth and eighth week of age. However, there was an increased concentration of triglycerides both at sixth and eighth week of age with significant increase in total lipids at eighth week of age, when compared to birds of G- V group. There was no significant variation In body weight and weight gain of birds in all floor space reduced groups compared to birds of control group (G-I) at all weeks of age with the exception of lower weight gain in G-IJI and G-IV when compared to G-II at eighth week of age. The body weight and weight gain in the birds of all feed restricted groups were lower when compared to birds of control group (0-1), at all weeks of age. A perusal of the overall feed efficiency from 5 to 8 weeks of age revealed that the birds of 0- VI group supplemented with Zeetress® recorded a superior FE (2.22) whereas an inferior value of 2.59 was noted in 0- V group without any dietary antistress agent. The control group recorded a FE of 2.29. Zeetress® supplementation improved overall FE in feed restricted group (0- VI). On the other hand this advantage was not observed in floor space reduced group (O-IlI). Dietary ascorbic acid improved overall FE only in case of feed restricted group 0- VII when compared to that of 0- V group. However, in floor space reduced group (O-IV), ascorbic acid supplementation could not improve the FE. The observations of the present study revealed that both feed restriction and floor space reduction resulted in some sort of chronic stress which led to variation in haematological and biochemical parameters, and impaired growth (in feed restricted groups). Analysis of TLC, OLC, mitogen induced Iymphocyte blastogenic response and plasma cortisol values indicated that there was a marked level of immunosuppression in the stressed birds. The magnitude of variation in most of these parameters was higher at sixth week of age when compared to that of eighth week values indicating some sort of habituation/ adaptation occurred upon chronic stress in the broiler chicken. The antistress agents - Zeetress® and ascorbic acid were equally effective in reversal of stress induced alterations in haematological, biochemical and production parameters.ThesisItem Open Access Evaluation of certain metabolic and haematological parameters in crossbred calves fed with rumen undegradable soyabean meal(Department of Physiology, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 2002) Yuvaraj, N; KAU; Ramnath, VProtecting ruminal feed proteins by formaldehyde treatment decreased their solubility and degradation in the rumen, eventually resulted in an increased availability of post-rumina I amino acids and this could be exploited for enhancing the growth rate of young ruminants as crossbred calves. Post natal growth in ruminants is chiefly in'fluenced by the metabolic hormones, whose secretions are, in turn, regulated by the circulating levels of critical amino acids. Hence, the objective of the present study was to determine and correlate the levels of certain metabolic hormones and other related haematological cum biochemical parameters in growing crossbred calves, fed with concentrate ration supplemented with untreated and formaldehyde treated soyabean meal. Twelve numbers of female crossbred calves of six months of age of the University Livestock Farm, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, were divided into two groups, viz., Group I and Group IT, with six calves in each group. One third of the quantity of concentrate ration to be given to each animal was replaced by raw soyabean meal (solvent extracted) in animals of Group I and 1 % formaldehyde treated soyabean meal in animals of Group Il, during the experimental period of 90 days (180 to 270 d of age). Drinking water and roughage were provided ad libitum. All the animals were maintained under standard managemental conditions. Fortnightly body weight of all the animals were recorded during the entire period of study. Blood samples were collected from all animals of both groups at the initial phase of experiment (180 d), thereafter on every 14 days as well as one month after the end of the experiment (300 d). The blood samples were analysed for blood glucose level (BGL) and haematological parameters like haemoglobin content, total erythrocyte count and total leucocyte count, volume of packed red blood corpuscles and erythrocytic indices using standard procedures. The serum was subjected for the estimation of biochemical parameters such as concentrations of total protein, albumin, globulin, total lipids, cholesterol, triglycerides, non-esterified fatty acids (NEF A), urea nitrogen, creatinine and bilirubin employing commercial kits. Hormonal traits like thyroxine (T 4), triiodothyronine (T 3) and insulin were also evaluated using radioimmuno assays. On analysing the proximate principles of various concentrates, it was found that both the groups received increased dietary protein intake and particularly animals of Group Il, through protected proteins. Animals of Group Il recorded a higher daily weight gain of 352.731 g/animal/day in comparison to 327.460 g/animal/day of animals of Group 1. The haematological parameters screened revealed a persistently increasing trend, with non-significant differences between groups. This upstream trend may be associated with an increased body weight gain of the animals and hence, with an increased requirement. Serum concentrations of total protein and albumin pursued an increasing trend in both groups with non- significant differences between them. This signified the elevated protein status of the animals with positive nitrogen balance. Moreover, there appears to be a direct correlation between albumin turn-over and body size (Kaneko et al., 1997). Serum globulin concentration revealed fluctuating yet an increasing trend in calves of both groups, suggesting an increased hepatic synthesis of a and ~ portions of globulins. A continuous upstream trend was evident in serum totallipids, cholesterol content and triglycerides concentration of calves of both the groups during the trial period, indicating an increased requirement of these constituents as membrane constituents and as energy reserve, for the build up of body size and weight. Increased insulin release stimulated by increased availability of post ruminal amino acids would have favoured an increased triglycerides synthesis. Decreasing trend in serum NEF A status of both the groups signified the reduced lipolysis for energy purpose with increased dietary protein intake. Blood glucose lev'el of calves of both groups revealed a pertinent increasing trend, elaborating the increased energy demands for the enhanced growth process. An increasing trend in serum urea nitrogen concentrations observed in calves of both the groups might be due to deamination and conversion into urea of excess protein in calves of both groups fed over and above the actual requirement. Serum levels of creatinine and bilirubin in both groups of animals showed a decreasing trend which may be attributed to the fine balance in their level by increased protein supplementation. Serum concentrations of hormones as T4, T3 and insulin exhibited an increasing trend in calves of both the groups. Increasing trend in insulin concentration demonstrated a positive relationship between amino acid absorption and insulin release and might have promoted protein anabolism resulting in an increased body size with positive nitrogen balance. The increased metabolic demand for oxygen associated with the increased body size might have resulted in an increased synthesis and release of thyroid hormones, with significant (pdifferences between groups. The fluctuating T4:T3 ratios in both the groups correspond~d to the episodic release of the hormones. Results of the present study substantiate that increased dietary proteins had brought about elevated protein anabolism and associated haematological, biochemical and hormonal changes in growing crossbred calves offered with concentrate ration supplemented with rumen protected soyabean meal and this was certainly having an advantage in the crossbred calves, over the calves provided with increased rumen degradable proteins. Since protein supplements . are generally the most expensive ingredients in ruminant rations, thus there is an interest in maximizing their utilization.ThesisItem Open Access Effect of blue green alga (Spirulina platensis) on haematological, biochemical and fertility parameters of egg type male chicken(Department of Physiology, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 2003) Sethu Nair, C; KAU; Girish Varma, GEnhancement of total production without compromising aspects of wholesomeness and subject Iconsumer lenvironmental safety of the produce forms the new challenge of Indian poultry industry. Since nutrition is the single largest external factor affecting performance of the stock and accounting lion share of the input cost, nutritional manipulations have widely been used to take up this challenge. Especially in the wake of set backs from potential residual hazards of anabolic steroids used as growth promoting feed additives, use of certain blue green algae as dietary supplement offers more innocuous organic alternatives, for being safe to the subject, consumers and environment. Owing to their success in human health with anabolic and therapeutic effects cyanobacteria, the blue green algae, are being tried in livestock/poultry production as well. Spirulina is rich in protein, vitamins and provitamins such as carotenoids, and minerals. Protein from spirulina is believed to be highly digestible due to the lack of a cell wall; it contains 18 amino acids, major ones being lysine, arginine, threonine, methionine and phenylalanine. High levels of arginine is normally believed to be insulinogenic, indirectly through stimulation of growth hormone secretion The present study forms part of an exploration of growth promoting and fertility augmenting aspects of one of the popular species of blue green algae, Spirulina platensis, envisaging evaluation of its influence on haematological, biochemical and fertility parameters of Austra-white male chicken, when used as a dietary supplement. Thirty-two numbers of eight-week-old Austra-white male chickens were reared under standard management conditions in battery cages in Department of Physiology, College Of Veterinary and Animal Sciences. The birds were selected randomly and divided into two groups, G I (control) and G 11 (spirulina supplemented) comprising of sixteen birds in each. Birds of group G I were solely fed with standard layer rution und formed lhe controls in the experiment while birds of G 1I group were fed layer ration with dietary supplementation of Spirulina platensis at the level of 2.5% of feed. Both rations were made isocaloric and isonitrogenous. Feed and water were provided to birds ad libitum. Body weight of the birds was taken at monthly intervals from initial period (eight week of age) to thirty-two weeks of age. Blood was collected at monthly intervals from third to eighth months of age. Estimation of haematological parameters comprised total erythrocyte count (TEC), haemoglobin content (Hb), volume of packed red cells (VPRC), erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) and total leukocyte count (TLC). Erythrocytic indices were calculated from the estimated values of TEC, Hb and VPRC. Biochemical profile of plasma included estimation of total protein, albumin, globulin, albumin globulin (A: G) ratio (protein profile), cholesterol, triglycerides, total lipids (lipid profile), blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and bilirubin at monthly intervals from third to eighth month. Plasma antioxidant status was assessed by estimating catalase enzyme activity and lipid peroxidation level. Semen was collected at twenty- fourth, twenty-eighth and thirty-second weeks of age. Semen evaluation was done by observing the motility, mass activity, semen volume, methylene blue reduction time (MBRT), percentage of live sperms (differential staining and hypo osmolarity swelling) and heat and cold shock resistance tests in the collected semen samples. Birds were sacrificed at thirty-two weeks of age and the relative organ weight of liver,' spleen, pancreas and testes was estimated. Lipid peroxidation level of homogenized samples of liver, spleen, pancreas and testes were also estimated. The data were statistically analysed using appropriate tests. Body weight of birds fed with spirulina (G II group) was significantly higher when compared to control (G I group). Relative organ weight also showed a significantly higher relative weight for spleen, pancreas and testes. The birds of G II group tSpirulina platensis- fed) showed a significantly higher values of TEC, Hb concentration, VPRC and TLC compared to control (G I group) birds. The value of ESR was significantly lower for the spirulina fed group. Plasma protein profile indicated a significant higher concentration of total protein, albumin and globulin levels in spirulina-fed group. Plasma lipid profile had a low total lipid and cholesterol level in spirulina fed birds of G II group when compared to the controls in G I group. However, the triglyceride levels was significantly higher for spirulina fed birds (G II group). Plasma concentrations of BUN and bilirubin were also significantly higher for G 11 group. The results indicated a strong haematopoietic effect of spirulina and its usefulness as a protein rich nutritional supplement for poultry. Plasma antioxidant activity was significantly higher for G II group in the sense that the spirulina fed group showed an increased blood catalase activity and a decreased plasma lipid peroxidation levels. Estimation of peroxidation level in homogenised samples of liver and testes also had a significantly lower peroxidation level in birds of G 11 group. Results underlined the strong antioxidant capacity of spirulina. Semen evaluation studies revealed a significantly higher semen volume, motility, and percentage of live sperms in semen samples from birds of G II group (spirulina fed) when compared to G I group. Semen samples from G II group also showed a significantly lower methylene blue reduction time compared to G I group. Heat and cold shock resistance test failed to show any significant difference between the two groups. Results indicated the fertility augmenting property of spirulina. The present study is consistent with earlier reports of growth promoting and erythropoietic effects of spirulina. Free radical scavenging effect of this species of alga has caused a marked increase in the antioxidant status of the subjects, congruent with earlier findings. Additionally, this is the first publication to report indications of a fertility augmenting effect of this alga in male birds. However, confirmation of the latter effect needs further investigation, preferably with insemination studies.ThesisItem Open Access Influence of dietary supplementation of protein and iodine on tapioca toxicity(Department of Physiology and Biochemistry, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 1994) Abdul Latheef; KAU; Ramakrishna Pillai, M GA three phase experiment was carried out to assess the level of cyanogenic glycoside (CNG) content in seven varieties of tapioca, its removal by various processing methods and its effect on metabolism in rats and kids. The role of dietary protein and iodine in modifying the deleterious effects of cyanide v/as investigated. Histopathological studies on the liver, pancreas and heart were also carried out in rats. The first phase of the study revealed that CNG content in terms of cyanide varied from 40.86 + 2.79 to 186.31 + 5.30 ug/g of fresh tuber with the lowest concentration in 'M-4' and higher concentrations in 'H-165' and 'Karkidakkan'. Processings like boiling and sun drying lowered the CNG content by about 50 per cent of the original. In the second phase 60 male albino Wistar rats, divided into six groups were given the following diet. Group I - Protein = 15%; Tapioca = Nil; Iodine = Nil Group II - Protein = 15%; Tapioca = 30%; Iodine = Nil Group III - Protein = 7.5%; Tapioca = 30%; Iodine = Nil Group IV - Protein = 7-5%; Tapioca v/ithout HCN = 30%; Iodine = Nil Group V - Protein = 15%; Tapioca = 30%; Iodine = 0.17 mg/kg Group VI - Protein = 22-5%; Tapioca = 30%; Iodine = 0.17 mg/kg Performance of rats was evaluated by recording growth rate, feed consumption and feed efficiency for a period of 12 weeks. Dry matter digestibility was also determined over a period of 24 h. At the end of 10th, 11th and 12th week of the study the rats were sacrificed and endocrinological, biochemical and histopathological evaluation of blood/serum and tissues were made. Performance of rats v/as poor on tapioca-based diet not supplemented with iodine (Groups II and III). Rats fed on protein deficient diet in the presence of cyanide containing tapioca were the most affected (Group III) . However, there was no significant variation in the performance in Groups V and VI compared to Group I when tapioca-based diet were supplemented with iodine. The digestibility of dry matter in six groups of rats was almost inversely related to the quantity of feed consumed. There was significant increase in DNA and decrease in protein content of thyroid thereby increasing the DNA: protein ratio, followed by extremely low levels of thyroxine and hyperplasia of the thyroid in Group III. In Group II alsothere occurred a significant reduction in the levels ofthyroxine and a resultant hypertrophy of the thyroid.ThesisItem Open Access Soil and crop management for organic carbon sequestration in a coconut based cropping system(Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2007) Sudha, B; KAU; Annamma, George (GuideI)Soil, the soul of infinite life, despite being the most basic of all natural resources is severely neglected these days. Quality of soil is determined much by the soil organic matter (SOM) content and hence SOM is regarded as the foundation of sustainable agriculture. The lesser addition of carbonaceous organic inputs to soil coupled with oxidative losses associated with tillage are the major reasons for the loss of SOM and hence organic carbon from cultivated soils. The oxidative losses of SOM contributes to release of carbon dioxide, the major greenhouse gas and aggravate the phenomenon of global warming. On the other hand, maintaining adequate carbon levels in soil by means of enriching SOM is important as carbon supports soil microbes by providing energy for their activities. Carbon sequestration is a management strategy which serves the twin purposes of storage of carbon in soil sinks preventing it’s loss as carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Based on this,the present study was planned with the objective of developing a suitable soil and crop management practice for improving the soil organic carbon content through carbon sequestration in a coconut based cropping system. The study intended to evaluate the effect of the management practices on soil properties, crop growth and yield and to work out the economics of the system. The study was carried out in two experiments. Among the various management options to conserve and sequester carbon in agricultural soils cropping system approach, residue management and tillage holds much significance and were tried in Experiment I entitled “Influence of crops and cultivation practices on soil organic carbon enrichment and crop performance”. This experiment involved three coconut based cropping systems viz. coconut – banana (s1), coconut- maize (s2), and coconut- pineapple (s3). Management of residue was attempted as surface mulch (m1) and soil incorporation (m2) so as to assess their varying impact on carbon sequestration. Conventional tillage operations (t1) ensuring more soil aeration to enhance SOM decomposition was compared with reduced till method (t2). Altogether there were 12 + 1 (coconut alone as control) treatment combinations replicated thrice in factorial randomized block design. Perusal of the results indicated positive influence on most of the soil properties from the initial to the final stage of the experiment with treatments. Coconut- pineapple systems where pineapple residue was recycled, surface mulching of residues and reduced tillage contributed to significant build up of organic carbon and organic matter in the upper soil layer by the end of second year in comparison to other treatments. Significant increase in the enzymatic status of soil for soil enzymes dehydrogenase, phosphatase, urease, cellulase and protease noticed under these treatments is attributed to the maintanance of more SOM . These treatments also maintained higher humic acid status, available phosphorus, available potassium and cation exchange capacity at the final stage of the experiment. With surface mulching and reduced tillage, there was improvement in the aggregate stability of soil which resulted in favourable decrease of bulk density. Under surface mulching, coconut – pineapple and coconut – banana systems recorded higher water holding capacity. The fulvic acid content of soil was more with coconut – pineapple system and reduced tillage. The surface mulched plots maintained higher humic acid : fulvic acid ratios. The total and available nitrogen status of soil was found higher and comparable under coconut – banana and coconut – pineapple systems. With surface mulching and reduced tillage in coconut – banana systems, more number of suckers and higher biomass of banana resulted. For pineapple, these treatments effected in better plant height, plant spread, reduction in the number of days to flowering, increased fruit girth and fruit yield. For first and second crop of maize, higher grain yield resulted from surface mulching. The coconut yield was not significantly influenced by treatments at the end of the study. The Benefit : Cost ratio revealed that coconut – pineapple systems, surface mulching and reduced till were much economical when compared to other treatments. Experiment II on “Carbon dynamics of organic residues” was carried out in microplots by studying the litter decomposition pattern for the three type of residues – maize (r1), banana (r2) and pineapple (r3), which were used in Experiment I. The residues were maintained in plots either as surface mulch (m1)or incorporation (m2). Control plots also were maintained without mulching. 6+1 (control) treatments were replicated thrice in factorial randomized block design. At the end of the study after one year time, it was noticed that maize residue decomposed almost completely whereas pineapple residue the least. With progress of decomposition, there was a decline in the percentage residue constituents except for lignin and ash. Higher status of soil organic carbon, soil organic matter and soil enzymes like dehydrogenase, urease and phosphatase were observed in surface mulched pineapple plots. The availability of nitrogen in soil was significantly high for maize residue plots by six months of time but by the time of one year, pineapple residue added plots had significantly higher nitrogen status. The results of the investigation reveals that pineapple residue with high lignin content and hence slow decomposition rates can enrich the organic matter status of soil even one year after it’s application especially when used as surface mulch. Coconut – pineapple cropping systems can be encouraged with surface mulching of residue and reduced till practices so as to enrich SOM and SOC for improved soil quality and to reap better profits.ThesisItem Open Access Effect of gooseberry (Emblica officinalis) and Indian gall nut (Terminalia chebula) on the immune response in cockerels under induced heat and cold stress(Department of Veterinary Physiology, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 2006) Mejo, K R; Ramnath, VThe study was conducted with an objective of finding the physiological and immunological variations that could be brought about with heat /cold stress in cockerels and the role of Gooseberry (GB) and Indian gallnut (IGN) supplementation as an antistress. Gramapriya cockerels of 1kg bw (3-4 months) were subjected to heat (40 ±1o C and relative humidity (RH) 60-70 percent) and cold stress (8 ±1o C and RH 40-50 per cent) each for 4h/day in a controlled environmental chamber (floor space 875 cm2 /bird) for a maximum of 10 days and the controls were reared randomly under ambient temperature of 30±1o C and RH 65 percent. GB+IGN supplementation was done @ 2.0 g/kg for 20 days (prior to and during the period of heat/cold stress). To a certain extend alternations in haematological parameters such as haemoglobin, packed cell volume, H/L ratio, biochemical parameters such as serum total protein, albumin, globulin, C-reactive protein, electrolytes like sodium and potassium, enzymes like lactate dehydrogenase and creatine kinase, cortisol, triiodothyronine (T3), thyroxine (T4) could be reversed by GB+IGN supplementation during heat stress. In the present study, the haemagglutinin (HA), hemolysin (HL), IgG and IgM titres and the spleenic antibody forming cells (plaque forming cells) and rosette forming cells (RFC) against known antigen were studied. The results indicated that GB+IGN supplementation not only maintained the preformed antibody titre but also improved the humoral immune response against a challenged antigen during the period of heat stress. In the present study, it was found that during cold stress, the GB+IGN supplementation could bring about an early tendency to restore the normal homeostasis of haematological, biochemical, and hormonal parameters. Cold stress resulted in a low profile of humoral immune response indicated by low anti-SRBC haemolysin (HA), Haemolysin (HL), IgG and IgM titres in untreated, CST cockerels when compared to GB+IGN treated counterparts, which showed better tires during cold stress. Similarly, treated cockerels exhibited more spleenic cells that produce antibodies against rat red blood cells. Thus, the immunopotentiative property of GB+IGN was reconfirmed and that the drug supplementation stimulated the humoral arm of immunity in cold stressed cockerels. Results of the present study indicated that combined supplementation of GB+IGN @ 2.0 g/kg bw in poultry could augment the humoral response during heat and cold stressThesisItem Open Access Cell mediated immune response in cockerels under temperature stress(Department of Veterinary Physiology, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 2008) Savitha, M K; KAU; Ramnath, VA study was conducted with the objective of finding the variations in the cell mediated immunological responses induced by heat / cold stress in cockerels and the role of brahma rasayana (BR) supplementation as an immunopotentiative agent. A total of 144 Gramapriya cockerels having 1 kg bw (4 months) were subjected to heat (40 ± 10C and relative humidity (RH) 80 ± 5 per cent) and cold (4 ±10C and RH 45 ± 5 per cent ) each for 4 consecutive hours per day for 10 days in a controlled environmental chamber (floor space 875 cm2 / bird). Control groups were reared randomly under ambient temperature of 30 ± 10C and RH 65 per cent. The dietary inclusion of BR was done @ 2.0 g/kg bw for 20 days (10 days prior to and during the period of heat / cold stress). To certain extend the heat stress induced hyperthermia in birds. Heat stress was positively correlated with the plasma corticosterone level in untreated cockerels, whereas exposure to cold and BR treatment resulted in lowered plasma corticosterone concentration. The phagocytic potential and migratory capability of peritoneal macrophages was found to be enhanced in both heat / cold stress, which were further enhanced by BR supplementation, while the cytotoxicity against L929 cells was decreased in heat / cold stressed cockerels, which were reversed by BR supplementation. It was noticed that the cutaneous delayed hypersensitivity response in heat / cold stressed untreated cockerels at 24 / 48 h post PHA inoculation got increased by BR supplementation. Similarly, the leucocyte migration inhibition index which was decreased in temperature stress could be reversed by BR treatment. Administration of BR was found to enhance the proliferation of splenocytes in response to mitogens like PHA and Con A in both heat / cold stress. The mitogenic response of PHA was dose dependent, while that of Con A was not dose specific. The natural killer cell activity was found decreased by heat / cold stress and enhanced with the supplementation of BR, earlier lysis of target K562 cells were achieved by effector cells. The antibody dependent cellular cytotoxicity was enhanced in heat / cold stressed cockerels administered with BR on the ninth day, when compared to their untreated counterparts, which was measured from the percentage SRBC lysis. An earlier antibody dependent complement mediated cytotoxicity was observed on 5th day of the experiment, while the BR supplementation could augment the tumoricidal property through ACC in heat / cold stressed and non-stressed cockerels. The cockerels under induced heat stress exhibited much diminished cell mediated immune profile when compared to cold stressed and non-stressed birds. In general, most of the immune parameters screened in cockerels under induced cold stress were found to be in par with non-stressed BR treated group. This indicated that there was not much alteration in the immune status of cockerels during cold exposure. Results of the present study also indicated that the dietary supplementation of BR @ 2.0 g/kg bw in poultry could potentiate the immunological insult inflicted by heat stress.ThesisItem Open Access Correlation between blood glucose level and liver glycogen storage in Japanese Quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica)(Department of Physiology and Biochemistry, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 1997) Raji, K; KAU; Surendranathan, K PLiterature available on the physiology of Japanese quail is scanty. It is only in the recent years that any concentrated attempt has been made to study the various aspects of metabolism in domestic fowl. The present study was undertaken to probe into some fundamental areas of carbohydrate metabolism in Japanese quail with special reference to the normal blood glucose level and liver glycogen content of both sexes at various ages and physiological conditions. The study was carried out in four hundred and forty Japanese quails (both sexes) of the same strain (egg type) procured from Kerala Agricultural University Poultry Farm, Mannuthy. In the first phase of study the estimations were conducted in 40, zero day old (on the day of hatch) Japanese quail chicks. In the second phase, 400, two week old quail chicks were utilized. The males and females were separated at four weeks of age and grouped into G1 (males) and G2 (females) comprising of 20 birds in each subgroup. The birds were maintained on standard quail rations in separate compartments of the cage. Feed consumption was recorded at fortnightly intervals. Twenty birds each from G1 (males) and G2 (females) groups were sacrificed at fortnightly intervals from the second to 16th week of age for the estimations. At the sixth week of age two sets of males from G1 group (20+20) and females from G2 group (20+20) were maintained on 50 per cent feed restriction for a period of four weeks. At eighth (two weeks feed restriction) and tenth (four weeks feed restriction) week of age twenty birds each from control and 50 per cent feed restricted birds of G1 and G2 groups were sacrificed for the different estimations as blood glucose concentration, liver glycogen content, liver weight and body weight. The results from the study revealed that the highest level of blood glucose was recorded at an age of zero day in Japanese quail (244.425 ± 2.204) mg/dl). A decreasing tendency in blood glucose level was observed as age advanced, may be due to an increase in the erythrocyte count of adult birds. In general female quails exhibited higher blood glucose level than the male quails. The highest content of liver glycogen (2.039 ± 0.102%) was recorded in the zero day. old quail chicks (on the day of hatch). The level of glycogen showed a decreasing tendency as age advanced, may be due to the utilisation of liver glycogen for the energy requirements of growing birds. There was no significant variation in liver glycogen level due to sex. However there was higher liver glycogen content in male quails at the age of two weeks. Liver weight and body weight showed a tendency of steady increase from the day of hatch to sixteenth week of age in both sexes. The females had higher liver weight as well as body weight than the males. The increase in liver weight may be due to the increase in the number and size of liver cells and also by excess deposits of energy required for growth. The maximum body weight recorded at the age of 16 weeks in both males and females were 170.500 ± 2.244 g and 184.000 ± 4.542 g respectively. Female quails had a higher body weight than the male quails especially from sixth week of age onwards, when they attained sexual maturity. Two weeks feed restriction, did not influence the blood glucose concentration and liver glycogen content in both sexes of quails, whereas a significant reduction was noticed in the liver weight and body weight of both male and female quails. Four weeks feed restriction in male quails resulted in a reduction in blood glucose level, liver glycogen content, liver weight as well as body weight. However, in female quails the blood glucose level and liver glycogen content were not significantly altered, whereas body weight and liver weight showed a significant reduction. The female quails were able to withstand the situation by lowering the rate of egg production. Blood glucose concentration and liver glycogen content exhibited a positive correlation in control as well as feed restricted (Two weeks and four weeks) birds. However, there was variation at different age levels in both male and female quails. The mean liver weight and liver glycogen content in both sexes of quails exhibited a negative correlation. However, there was variation in the correlation due to sex and age. Body weight and liver weight were found to be positively correlated in both sexes of quails at all age periods and even in feed restricted periods. It was also observed that the daily feed consumption in both male and female quails increased with the advancement of age and female quails consumed more than the male quails. Over and above the information obtained from the present study on certain aspects of avian carbohydrate metabolism, further studies are required to investigate the factors influencing the regulation of normal levels of blood glucose and liver glycogen in birds. The indefinite relation at different age periods observed in Japanese quails between blood glucose concentration and liver glycogen content and the ability to withstand the changes in the levels of blood glucose and liver glycogen, due to feed restriction, attract further investigations. The factors involved may be either the predominance of alpha cells in avian pancreas or role of kidney in gluconeogenesis. It will also be interesting to investigate the compensatory mechanisms that operate at the time of feed restriction in the regulation of normal blood glucose level and liver glycogen content.
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