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Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur
The history of agricultural education in Kerala can be traced back to the year 1896 when a scheme was evolved in the erstwhile Travancore State to train a few young men in scientific agriculture at the Demonstration Farm, Karamana, Thiruvananthapuram, presently, the Cropping Systems Research Centre under Kerala Agricultural University. Agriculture was introduced as an optional subject in the middle school classes in the State in 1922 when an Agricultural Middle School was started at Aluva, Ernakulam District. The popularity and usefulness of this school led to the starting of similar institutions at Kottarakkara and Konni in 1928 and 1931 respectively.
Agriculture was later introduced as an optional subject for Intermediate Course in 1953. In 1955, the erstwhile Government of Travancore-Cochin started the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, Thiruvananthapuram and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences at Mannuthy, Thrissur for imparting higher education in agricultural and veterinary sciences, respectively. These institutions were brought under the direct administrative control of the Department of Agriculture and the Department of Animal Husbandry, respectively. With the formation of Kerala State in 1956, these two colleges were affiliated to the University of Kerala. The post-graduate programmes leading to M.Sc. (Ag), M.V.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees were started in 1961, 1962 and 1965 respectively.
On the recommendation of the Second National Education Commission (1964-66) headed by Dr. D.S. Kothari, the then Chairman of the University Grants Commission, one Agricultural University in each State was established. The State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) were established in India as an integral part of the National Agricultural Research System to give the much needed impetus to Agriculture Education and Research in the Country. As a result the Kerala Agricultural University (KAU) was established on 24th February 1971 by virtue of the Act 33 of 1971 and started functioning on 1st February 1972. The Kerala Agricultural University is the 15th in the series of the SAUs.
In accordance with the provisions of KAU Act of 1971, the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, were brought under the Kerala Agricultural University. In addition, twenty one agricultural and animal husbandry research stations were also transferred to the KAU for taking up research and extension programmes on various crops, animals, birds, etc.
During 2011, Kerala Agricultural University was trifurcated into Kerala Veterinary and Animal Sciences University (KVASU), Kerala University of Fisheries and Ocean Studies (KUFOS) and Kerala Agricultural University (KAU).
Now the University has seven colleges (four Agriculture, one Agricultural Engineering, one Forestry, one Co-operation Banking & Management), six RARSs, seven KVKs, 15 Research Stations and 16 Research and Extension Units under the faculties of Agriculture, Agricultural Engineering and Forestry. In addition, one Academy on Climate Change Adaptation and one Institute of Agricultural Technology offering M.Sc. (Integrated) Climate Change Adaptation and Diploma in Agricultural Sciences respectively are also functioning in Kerala Agricultural University.
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ThesisItem Open Access Structure and function of the shell gland in Japanese Quail under different levels of dietary calcium(Department of Physiology and Biochemistry, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences,Mannuthy, 1994) Philomina, P T; KAU; Ramakrishna Pillai, M GLiterature available on the physiological aspects of egg production in Japaneese quail is scanity and many lacunae exist in the knowledge of various mechanisms involved in the formation of egg. Under the modern practice of intensive quail husbandry it is often found that the egg shells of Japanese quail are becoming thinner, more gragile and easily broken. Consequently, safety in transportation and marketability of these eggs are considerably reduced. Hence it was thought worthwhile to investigate some of the factors involved in egg production, more especially the egg shell formation. In the present investigation attempts were made to elucidate the mechanism of the egg shell formation with respect to the structural and functional peculiarities of the shell gland in Japaneese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica) calcium. The study envisaged histological, histochemical peculiarities of the shell gland; the mineral (calcium and inorganic phosphorus) and enzyme (ALP and ACP) profile of the plasma and shell gland. The influence of dietary calcium on the body weight, development of the oviduct, egg production and egg shell quality was also investigated. Japanese quails attained sexual maturity early at the sixth week of age, by which time they attained a body weight of 131.8 + 0.600 g and started egg production. The birds grew at a faster rate in the early weeks, came into peak production at the 16th week of age, and the trend continued even at the 24th week of age, with a body weight of 198.033 + 0.220 g for good production. The length and weight of the oviduct increased from the sixth to 24th week of age. The variation in length and weight of the shell gland from the 16th and 24th week was marginal. Growth rate was almost marginal from the 16th week onwards. Histologically the quail shell gland showed similar structure to that of the domestic fowl except for the tunca muscularis. The inner circular muscle layer was thicker and outer longitudinal layer was thinner. As age advanced, at the 16th and 24th week of age the mucosal folding were numerous. The inner circular muscle layer became thicker and even this layer invaded the lamina propria and the vascularity in the connective tissue core of the tunica muscularis increased. The egg quality traits such as egg weight, shell weight, shell thickness, shape index and specific gravity markedly improved as age advanced from the sixth to 16th week. From the 16th to 24th week the egg quality was lowered with an increase in egg weight, lowering of shell weight, shell thickness and specific gravity. Dietary calcium significantly influenced the body weight, egg production, shell quality,histology of the shell gland and mineral and enzyme profile of plasma. Birds exhibited optimum growth, and production at higher pre-laying and layer dietary calcium levels. Prelaying dietary calcium level of 0.7 to 0.9 percent and layer level of 3 percent were found to be optimum in quail ration. As far as the oviduct development is concerned, pre-laying dietary calcium had negligible influence, whereas layer dietary calcium level of 2.5 percent was just sufficient for optimum development of oviduct/ shell gland. Histologically the only difference noticed in highest (3.5%) layer dietary calcium fed quails was the increased vascularity in their connective tissue core of the lamina propria of the shell gland. There was a positive correlation between dietary calcium (pre-laying and layer) level and plasma calcium concentration at the sixth, and 16th week of age. But at the 24th week of age only layer dietary calcium induced such a relationship. As age advanced, pre-laying dietary calcium became insignificant. In the case of plasma inorganic phosphate concentration, there existed a negative correlation to that of pre-laying and layer dietary calcium levels at all the age groups of quails. It may be emphasized in this context that the extent of the negative correlation existing between plasma inorganic phosphate and prelaying and layer dietary calcium levels was considerably lower. The concentration of calcium and inorganic phosphorous in the plasma and shell gland were uninfluenced by the age. The shell gland concentration of calcium and inorganic phosphorous was lower compared to their plasma level. These minerals were not stored in the shell gland for shell calcification. At the time of calcification calcium was transferred from the plasma (blood) to the shell gland and then to the shell. Dietary calcium significantly influenced the plasma concentration. Plasma enzyme concentration of ALP and ACP was negatively correlated with dietary calcium (pre-laying and layer) levels, whereas the shell gland ALP concentration was uninfluenced by the dietary calcium and age and its concentration was very low compared to those of plasma ALP and shell gland ACP. Shell gland ALP was unimportant in shell formation. Histochemical localization of the shell gland ALP was in confirmation with that of quantitative estimation. Shell gland ACP content was comparatively higher than ALP, which was also in agreement with histochemical localization. Shell gland ACP may be involved in the transfer of calcium from the plasma to the shell through the shell gland mucosa, since its level in the shell gland was higher and influenced by dietary calcium levels were related to the cyclic medullary bone formation and resorption which is a normal feature in laying birds. Variations in the dietary calcium induced changes in the concentration of plasma minerals and enzymes supported the view that dietary calcium is important for proper shell formation. Higher level of dietary calcium improved the egg shell quality, egg production and body weight. Pre-laying dietary calcium level of 0.7 to 0.9 percent and layer level of 3 percent were found to be optimum in quail ration.ThesisItem Open Access Effect of induced stress and antistress agents on the physiological parameters in broiler chicken(Department of Physiology, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 2003) Srinivas Reddy, Bellur; KAU; Philomina, P TIn modern poultry production system various factors namely floor space reduction, feed and water restriction, high environmental temperature, vaccination, medication, debeaking etc. have the potential to induce stress in poultry which results in poor performance as well as reduction in immune response as the nutrients normally utilized for growth and production are diverted to counteract the stress and survival. The study was undertaken with the objective of evaluating the influence of induced stress and anti stress agents (dietary ascorbic acid and Zeetress®) on various physiological, biochemical and production parameters in broiler chicken. Fifty six numbers of day old broiler chicks (Vencob) procured from a commercial hatchery were reared in battery cages under the standard managemental conditions upto four weeks of age. Then they were randomly selected and divided into seven groups (G-I to G- VII) with eight birds per group. The birds in different groups were as follows: G-I as the control, G-II as floor space reduced group (33%), G-III as floor space reduced group supplemented with Zeetress® @ 0.01%, G-IV as floor space reduced group supplemented with ascorbic acid @ 0.02%, G- V as 30% feed restriction, G- VI as 30% feed restriction with dietary supplementation of Zeetress® @ 0.0 I % and G- VII as 30% feed restriction with dietary supplementation of ascorbic acid @ 0.02%. The birds were maintained in battery cages under standard managemental conditions on broiler ration with the exception of floor space reduction, feed restriction and incorporation of dietary anti stress agents. Production parameters such as weekly weight gain and feed efficiency were analyzed on weekly basis. Blood was collected with suitable anticoagulants, initially at fourth and then at sixth and eighth week of age. Whole blood was utilized for analysis of haematological parameters, heterophil: lyrnphocyte (H:L) ratio and mitogen induced lymphocyte proliferation test. Plasma was utilized for biochemical analyses i.e. for protein profile, lipid profile and estimation of glucose, uric acid and cortisol. The data were statistically analysed by appropriate tests. The birds of G- V group showed significantly lower values of TEC, Hb, VPRC and TLC at sixth and eight week of age. The dietary supplementation of Zeetress® and ascorbic acid in floor space reduced groups feed restricted groups did not show any significant influence on the values of TEC, Hb, VPRC, ESR, TLC when compared to the birds of respective stress induced groups G-II and G- V. The birds of stress induced groups G-II and G- V had lower lymphocyte count and higher heterophil and basophil count, higher H:L ratio and suppressed mitogen induced lyrnphocyte proliferation (probably due to a rise in level of plasma corticosteroids as a result of stress response) when compared to birds of G-J group, both at sixth and eighth week of age. Dietary supplementation of Zeetress® and ascorbic acid in floor space reduced groups and feed restricted groups elevated the lymphocyte counts, suppressed heterophil and" basophil counts, H:L ratio and considerably improved the mitogen induced lymphoblastogenic response both at sixth and eighth week of age. In the present study the birds of G-II and G- V group had no significant variation in plasma protein profile and glucose levels but had increased plasma concentration of ortisol (probably due to stress induced adrenal hyper activity) and decreased uric acid, when compared to birds of control group G-I, both at sixth and eighth week of age. Dietary Zeetress® and ascorbic acid supplementation in floor space reduced groups and feed restricted groups showed a lower plasma concentration of cortisol both at sixth and eighth week of age, and significantly increased uric acid at eighth week of age. Dietary supplementation of Zeetress® and ascorbic acid in floor space reduced groups decreased plasma concentration of cholesterol both at sixth and eighth week of age and total lipids at sixth week of age. In birds of feed restricted G- V group plasma concentration of cholesterol, triglycerides and total lipids were lower both at sixth and eighth week of age when compared to birds of control group G-I. The dietary supplementation of Zeetress® and ascorbic acid in feed restricted groups had no significant influence on plasma concentration of cholesterol both at sixth and eighth week of age. However, there was an increased concentration of triglycerides both at sixth and eighth week of age with significant increase in total lipids at eighth week of age, when compared to birds of G- V group. There was no significant variation In body weight and weight gain of birds in all floor space reduced groups compared to birds of control group (G-I) at all weeks of age with the exception of lower weight gain in G-IJI and G-IV when compared to G-II at eighth week of age. The body weight and weight gain in the birds of all feed restricted groups were lower when compared to birds of control group (0-1), at all weeks of age. A perusal of the overall feed efficiency from 5 to 8 weeks of age revealed that the birds of 0- VI group supplemented with Zeetress® recorded a superior FE (2.22) whereas an inferior value of 2.59 was noted in 0- V group without any dietary antistress agent. The control group recorded a FE of 2.29. Zeetress® supplementation improved overall FE in feed restricted group (0- VI). On the other hand this advantage was not observed in floor space reduced group (O-IlI). Dietary ascorbic acid improved overall FE only in case of feed restricted group 0- VII when compared to that of 0- V group. However, in floor space reduced group (O-IV), ascorbic acid supplementation could not improve the FE. The observations of the present study revealed that both feed restriction and floor space reduction resulted in some sort of chronic stress which led to variation in haematological and biochemical parameters, and impaired growth (in feed restricted groups). Analysis of TLC, OLC, mitogen induced Iymphocyte blastogenic response and plasma cortisol values indicated that there was a marked level of immunosuppression in the stressed birds. The magnitude of variation in most of these parameters was higher at sixth week of age when compared to that of eighth week values indicating some sort of habituation/ adaptation occurred upon chronic stress in the broiler chicken. The antistress agents - Zeetress® and ascorbic acid were equally effective in reversal of stress induced alterations in haematological, biochemical and production parameters.ThesisItem Open Access Evaluation of certain metabolic and haematological parameters in crossbred calves fed with rumen undegradable soyabean meal(Department of Physiology, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 2002) Yuvaraj, N; KAU; Ramnath, VProtecting ruminal feed proteins by formaldehyde treatment decreased their solubility and degradation in the rumen, eventually resulted in an increased availability of post-rumina I amino acids and this could be exploited for enhancing the growth rate of young ruminants as crossbred calves. Post natal growth in ruminants is chiefly in'fluenced by the metabolic hormones, whose secretions are, in turn, regulated by the circulating levels of critical amino acids. Hence, the objective of the present study was to determine and correlate the levels of certain metabolic hormones and other related haematological cum biochemical parameters in growing crossbred calves, fed with concentrate ration supplemented with untreated and formaldehyde treated soyabean meal. Twelve numbers of female crossbred calves of six months of age of the University Livestock Farm, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, were divided into two groups, viz., Group I and Group IT, with six calves in each group. One third of the quantity of concentrate ration to be given to each animal was replaced by raw soyabean meal (solvent extracted) in animals of Group I and 1 % formaldehyde treated soyabean meal in animals of Group Il, during the experimental period of 90 days (180 to 270 d of age). Drinking water and roughage were provided ad libitum. All the animals were maintained under standard managemental conditions. Fortnightly body weight of all the animals were recorded during the entire period of study. Blood samples were collected from all animals of both groups at the initial phase of experiment (180 d), thereafter on every 14 days as well as one month after the end of the experiment (300 d). The blood samples were analysed for blood glucose level (BGL) and haematological parameters like haemoglobin content, total erythrocyte count and total leucocyte count, volume of packed red blood corpuscles and erythrocytic indices using standard procedures. The serum was subjected for the estimation of biochemical parameters such as concentrations of total protein, albumin, globulin, total lipids, cholesterol, triglycerides, non-esterified fatty acids (NEF A), urea nitrogen, creatinine and bilirubin employing commercial kits. Hormonal traits like thyroxine (T 4), triiodothyronine (T 3) and insulin were also evaluated using radioimmuno assays. On analysing the proximate principles of various concentrates, it was found that both the groups received increased dietary protein intake and particularly animals of Group Il, through protected proteins. Animals of Group Il recorded a higher daily weight gain of 352.731 g/animal/day in comparison to 327.460 g/animal/day of animals of Group 1. The haematological parameters screened revealed a persistently increasing trend, with non-significant differences between groups. This upstream trend may be associated with an increased body weight gain of the animals and hence, with an increased requirement. Serum concentrations of total protein and albumin pursued an increasing trend in both groups with non- significant differences between them. This signified the elevated protein status of the animals with positive nitrogen balance. Moreover, there appears to be a direct correlation between albumin turn-over and body size (Kaneko et al., 1997). Serum globulin concentration revealed fluctuating yet an increasing trend in calves of both groups, suggesting an increased hepatic synthesis of a and ~ portions of globulins. A continuous upstream trend was evident in serum totallipids, cholesterol content and triglycerides concentration of calves of both the groups during the trial period, indicating an increased requirement of these constituents as membrane constituents and as energy reserve, for the build up of body size and weight. Increased insulin release stimulated by increased availability of post ruminal amino acids would have favoured an increased triglycerides synthesis. Decreasing trend in serum NEF A status of both the groups signified the reduced lipolysis for energy purpose with increased dietary protein intake. Blood glucose lev'el of calves of both groups revealed a pertinent increasing trend, elaborating the increased energy demands for the enhanced growth process. An increasing trend in serum urea nitrogen concentrations observed in calves of both the groups might be due to deamination and conversion into urea of excess protein in calves of both groups fed over and above the actual requirement. Serum levels of creatinine and bilirubin in both groups of animals showed a decreasing trend which may be attributed to the fine balance in their level by increased protein supplementation. Serum concentrations of hormones as T4, T3 and insulin exhibited an increasing trend in calves of both the groups. Increasing trend in insulin concentration demonstrated a positive relationship between amino acid absorption and insulin release and might have promoted protein anabolism resulting in an increased body size with positive nitrogen balance. The increased metabolic demand for oxygen associated with the increased body size might have resulted in an increased synthesis and release of thyroid hormones, with significant (pdifferences between groups. The fluctuating T4:T3 ratios in both the groups correspond~d to the episodic release of the hormones. Results of the present study substantiate that increased dietary proteins had brought about elevated protein anabolism and associated haematological, biochemical and hormonal changes in growing crossbred calves offered with concentrate ration supplemented with rumen protected soyabean meal and this was certainly having an advantage in the crossbred calves, over the calves provided with increased rumen degradable proteins. Since protein supplements . are generally the most expensive ingredients in ruminant rations, thus there is an interest in maximizing their utilization.ThesisItem Open Access Effect of blue green alga (Spirulina platensis) on haematological, biochemical and fertility parameters of egg type male chicken(Department of Physiology, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 2003) Sethu Nair, C; KAU; Girish Varma, GEnhancement of total production without compromising aspects of wholesomeness and subject Iconsumer lenvironmental safety of the produce forms the new challenge of Indian poultry industry. Since nutrition is the single largest external factor affecting performance of the stock and accounting lion share of the input cost, nutritional manipulations have widely been used to take up this challenge. Especially in the wake of set backs from potential residual hazards of anabolic steroids used as growth promoting feed additives, use of certain blue green algae as dietary supplement offers more innocuous organic alternatives, for being safe to the subject, consumers and environment. Owing to their success in human health with anabolic and therapeutic effects cyanobacteria, the blue green algae, are being tried in livestock/poultry production as well. Spirulina is rich in protein, vitamins and provitamins such as carotenoids, and minerals. Protein from spirulina is believed to be highly digestible due to the lack of a cell wall; it contains 18 amino acids, major ones being lysine, arginine, threonine, methionine and phenylalanine. High levels of arginine is normally believed to be insulinogenic, indirectly through stimulation of growth hormone secretion The present study forms part of an exploration of growth promoting and fertility augmenting aspects of one of the popular species of blue green algae, Spirulina platensis, envisaging evaluation of its influence on haematological, biochemical and fertility parameters of Austra-white male chicken, when used as a dietary supplement. Thirty-two numbers of eight-week-old Austra-white male chickens were reared under standard management conditions in battery cages in Department of Physiology, College Of Veterinary and Animal Sciences. The birds were selected randomly and divided into two groups, G I (control) and G 11 (spirulina supplemented) comprising of sixteen birds in each. Birds of group G I were solely fed with standard layer rution und formed lhe controls in the experiment while birds of G 1I group were fed layer ration with dietary supplementation of Spirulina platensis at the level of 2.5% of feed. Both rations were made isocaloric and isonitrogenous. Feed and water were provided to birds ad libitum. Body weight of the birds was taken at monthly intervals from initial period (eight week of age) to thirty-two weeks of age. Blood was collected at monthly intervals from third to eighth months of age. Estimation of haematological parameters comprised total erythrocyte count (TEC), haemoglobin content (Hb), volume of packed red cells (VPRC), erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) and total leukocyte count (TLC). Erythrocytic indices were calculated from the estimated values of TEC, Hb and VPRC. Biochemical profile of plasma included estimation of total protein, albumin, globulin, albumin globulin (A: G) ratio (protein profile), cholesterol, triglycerides, total lipids (lipid profile), blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and bilirubin at monthly intervals from third to eighth month. Plasma antioxidant status was assessed by estimating catalase enzyme activity and lipid peroxidation level. Semen was collected at twenty- fourth, twenty-eighth and thirty-second weeks of age. Semen evaluation was done by observing the motility, mass activity, semen volume, methylene blue reduction time (MBRT), percentage of live sperms (differential staining and hypo osmolarity swelling) and heat and cold shock resistance tests in the collected semen samples. Birds were sacrificed at thirty-two weeks of age and the relative organ weight of liver,' spleen, pancreas and testes was estimated. Lipid peroxidation level of homogenized samples of liver, spleen, pancreas and testes were also estimated. The data were statistically analysed using appropriate tests. Body weight of birds fed with spirulina (G II group) was significantly higher when compared to control (G I group). Relative organ weight also showed a significantly higher relative weight for spleen, pancreas and testes. The birds of G II group tSpirulina platensis- fed) showed a significantly higher values of TEC, Hb concentration, VPRC and TLC compared to control (G I group) birds. The value of ESR was significantly lower for the spirulina fed group. Plasma protein profile indicated a significant higher concentration of total protein, albumin and globulin levels in spirulina-fed group. Plasma lipid profile had a low total lipid and cholesterol level in spirulina fed birds of G II group when compared to the controls in G I group. However, the triglyceride levels was significantly higher for spirulina fed birds (G II group). Plasma concentrations of BUN and bilirubin were also significantly higher for G 11 group. The results indicated a strong haematopoietic effect of spirulina and its usefulness as a protein rich nutritional supplement for poultry. Plasma antioxidant activity was significantly higher for G II group in the sense that the spirulina fed group showed an increased blood catalase activity and a decreased plasma lipid peroxidation levels. Estimation of peroxidation level in homogenised samples of liver and testes also had a significantly lower peroxidation level in birds of G 11 group. Results underlined the strong antioxidant capacity of spirulina. Semen evaluation studies revealed a significantly higher semen volume, motility, and percentage of live sperms in semen samples from birds of G II group (spirulina fed) when compared to G I group. Semen samples from G II group also showed a significantly lower methylene blue reduction time compared to G I group. Heat and cold shock resistance test failed to show any significant difference between the two groups. Results indicated the fertility augmenting property of spirulina. The present study is consistent with earlier reports of growth promoting and erythropoietic effects of spirulina. Free radical scavenging effect of this species of alga has caused a marked increase in the antioxidant status of the subjects, congruent with earlier findings. Additionally, this is the first publication to report indications of a fertility augmenting effect of this alga in male birds. However, confirmation of the latter effect needs further investigation, preferably with insemination studies.ThesisItem Open Access Influence of dietary supplementation of protein and iodine on tapioca toxicity(Department of Physiology and Biochemistry, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 1994) Abdul Latheef; KAU; Ramakrishna Pillai, M GA three phase experiment was carried out to assess the level of cyanogenic glycoside (CNG) content in seven varieties of tapioca, its removal by various processing methods and its effect on metabolism in rats and kids. The role of dietary protein and iodine in modifying the deleterious effects of cyanide v/as investigated. Histopathological studies on the liver, pancreas and heart were also carried out in rats. The first phase of the study revealed that CNG content in terms of cyanide varied from 40.86 + 2.79 to 186.31 + 5.30 ug/g of fresh tuber with the lowest concentration in 'M-4' and higher concentrations in 'H-165' and 'Karkidakkan'. Processings like boiling and sun drying lowered the CNG content by about 50 per cent of the original. In the second phase 60 male albino Wistar rats, divided into six groups were given the following diet. Group I - Protein = 15%; Tapioca = Nil; Iodine = Nil Group II - Protein = 15%; Tapioca = 30%; Iodine = Nil Group III - Protein = 7.5%; Tapioca = 30%; Iodine = Nil Group IV - Protein = 7-5%; Tapioca v/ithout HCN = 30%; Iodine = Nil Group V - Protein = 15%; Tapioca = 30%; Iodine = 0.17 mg/kg Group VI - Protein = 22-5%; Tapioca = 30%; Iodine = 0.17 mg/kg Performance of rats was evaluated by recording growth rate, feed consumption and feed efficiency for a period of 12 weeks. Dry matter digestibility was also determined over a period of 24 h. At the end of 10th, 11th and 12th week of the study the rats were sacrificed and endocrinological, biochemical and histopathological evaluation of blood/serum and tissues were made. Performance of rats v/as poor on tapioca-based diet not supplemented with iodine (Groups II and III). Rats fed on protein deficient diet in the presence of cyanide containing tapioca were the most affected (Group III) . However, there was no significant variation in the performance in Groups V and VI compared to Group I when tapioca-based diet were supplemented with iodine. The digestibility of dry matter in six groups of rats was almost inversely related to the quantity of feed consumed. There was significant increase in DNA and decrease in protein content of thyroid thereby increasing the DNA: protein ratio, followed by extremely low levels of thyroxine and hyperplasia of the thyroid in Group III. In Group II alsothere occurred a significant reduction in the levels ofthyroxine and a resultant hypertrophy of the thyroid.ThesisItem Open Access Correlation between blood glucose level and liver glycogen storage in Japanese Quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica)(Department of Physiology and Biochemistry, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 1997) Raji, K; KAU; Surendranathan, K PLiterature available on the physiology of Japanese quail is scanty. It is only in the recent years that any concentrated attempt has been made to study the various aspects of metabolism in domestic fowl. The present study was undertaken to probe into some fundamental areas of carbohydrate metabolism in Japanese quail with special reference to the normal blood glucose level and liver glycogen content of both sexes at various ages and physiological conditions. The study was carried out in four hundred and forty Japanese quails (both sexes) of the same strain (egg type) procured from Kerala Agricultural University Poultry Farm, Mannuthy. In the first phase of study the estimations were conducted in 40, zero day old (on the day of hatch) Japanese quail chicks. In the second phase, 400, two week old quail chicks were utilized. The males and females were separated at four weeks of age and grouped into G1 (males) and G2 (females) comprising of 20 birds in each subgroup. The birds were maintained on standard quail rations in separate compartments of the cage. Feed consumption was recorded at fortnightly intervals. Twenty birds each from G1 (males) and G2 (females) groups were sacrificed at fortnightly intervals from the second to 16th week of age for the estimations. At the sixth week of age two sets of males from G1 group (20+20) and females from G2 group (20+20) were maintained on 50 per cent feed restriction for a period of four weeks. At eighth (two weeks feed restriction) and tenth (four weeks feed restriction) week of age twenty birds each from control and 50 per cent feed restricted birds of G1 and G2 groups were sacrificed for the different estimations as blood glucose concentration, liver glycogen content, liver weight and body weight. The results from the study revealed that the highest level of blood glucose was recorded at an age of zero day in Japanese quail (244.425 ± 2.204) mg/dl). A decreasing tendency in blood glucose level was observed as age advanced, may be due to an increase in the erythrocyte count of adult birds. In general female quails exhibited higher blood glucose level than the male quails. The highest content of liver glycogen (2.039 ± 0.102%) was recorded in the zero day. old quail chicks (on the day of hatch). The level of glycogen showed a decreasing tendency as age advanced, may be due to the utilisation of liver glycogen for the energy requirements of growing birds. There was no significant variation in liver glycogen level due to sex. However there was higher liver glycogen content in male quails at the age of two weeks. Liver weight and body weight showed a tendency of steady increase from the day of hatch to sixteenth week of age in both sexes. The females had higher liver weight as well as body weight than the males. The increase in liver weight may be due to the increase in the number and size of liver cells and also by excess deposits of energy required for growth. The maximum body weight recorded at the age of 16 weeks in both males and females were 170.500 ± 2.244 g and 184.000 ± 4.542 g respectively. Female quails had a higher body weight than the male quails especially from sixth week of age onwards, when they attained sexual maturity. Two weeks feed restriction, did not influence the blood glucose concentration and liver glycogen content in both sexes of quails, whereas a significant reduction was noticed in the liver weight and body weight of both male and female quails. Four weeks feed restriction in male quails resulted in a reduction in blood glucose level, liver glycogen content, liver weight as well as body weight. However, in female quails the blood glucose level and liver glycogen content were not significantly altered, whereas body weight and liver weight showed a significant reduction. The female quails were able to withstand the situation by lowering the rate of egg production. Blood glucose concentration and liver glycogen content exhibited a positive correlation in control as well as feed restricted (Two weeks and four weeks) birds. However, there was variation at different age levels in both male and female quails. The mean liver weight and liver glycogen content in both sexes of quails exhibited a negative correlation. However, there was variation in the correlation due to sex and age. Body weight and liver weight were found to be positively correlated in both sexes of quails at all age periods and even in feed restricted periods. It was also observed that the daily feed consumption in both male and female quails increased with the advancement of age and female quails consumed more than the male quails. Over and above the information obtained from the present study on certain aspects of avian carbohydrate metabolism, further studies are required to investigate the factors influencing the regulation of normal levels of blood glucose and liver glycogen in birds. The indefinite relation at different age periods observed in Japanese quails between blood glucose concentration and liver glycogen content and the ability to withstand the changes in the levels of blood glucose and liver glycogen, due to feed restriction, attract further investigations. The factors involved may be either the predominance of alpha cells in avian pancreas or role of kidney in gluconeogenesis. It will also be interesting to investigate the compensatory mechanisms that operate at the time of feed restriction in the regulation of normal blood glucose level and liver glycogen content.ThesisItem Open Access Metabolic and endocrine profile of crossbred pre-ruminant calves under extended colostrum feeding(Department of Physiology, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 2003) Babitha, V; KAU; Philomina, P TColostrum is a highly fortified source of nutrients having seven times proteins, twice the total solids, higher content of vitamins, minerals and a very high immune value than normal milk. In most of the commercial dairy farms where day old weaning of calves is practiced, lion share of this potent calf protein supplement is practically wasted since colostrum is unmarketable for human consumption. In this circumstance, the present study was undertaken with the objective of evaluating the effects of enhanced feeding of preserved colostrum in neonatal cross-bred calves on the health status, growth, haematological, biochemical and hormonal parameters and to find any correlations exist among these factors during their first month of life. Fresh colostrum was collected in hygienic conditions from recently calved healthy cows from the first six milkings and then pooled. The pooled colostrum was preserved in dry sterile bottles by deep freezing at -20°C until fed to calves. Crude protein content of colostrum and whole milk were estimated. Total. viable count of pooled colostrum samples were recorded before and after ultra violet irradiation for 30 minutes. Twelve numbers of healthy neonatal crossbred calves of either sex of the Kerala Agricultural University Livestock Farm, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy were divided into two groups as Group I (control) and Group II (experimental) with six calves in each group. The calves of group I were fed with colostrum for three days and then milk (one-tenth of body weight) as followed in the farm. The calves of group 11 were fed with colostrum for 30 days of age continuously at the rate of one-tenth of body weight. All calves / were provided with drinking water ad libitum and calf starter (250 g/day/calf) from 15 days of age. The animals were maintained under standard management conditions. Regular monitoring of clinical health status and individual weighing at weekly intervals from day zero (on the day of birth) to one month of all the calves were performed and recorded. Blood samples were collected from the calves of both groups soon after birth (zero day), thereafter 18 h after birth (first day), sixth day, twelfth day, eighteenth day, twenty fourth day and thirtieth day of age. The blood samples were analysed for blood glucose level and haematological parameters like haemoglobin content, total erythrocyte, total leukocyte count, volume of packed red blood cells (VPRC) and subsequently the erythrocyte indices were calculated. Estimation of concentration of serum total protein, albumin, globulin, total lipids, cholesterol, triglycerides, non- esterified fatty acids (NEF A), urea nitrogen (BUN), creatinine and bilirubin were conducted. Hormonal profile of serum thyroxine (T4), triiodothyronine (T3) and insulin were estimated. Clinical parameters of both the groups of calves were within the normal range. Calves of group II recorded a higher weekly body weight gain. Of the various haemotological parameters evaluated, haemoglobin concentration and volume of packed red blood cells exhibited a declining trend, probably due to the haemodilution after intake of colostrum and milk. The total erythrocyte count remained almost constant whereas WBe count showed a persistently an ascending pattern in both the groups, increasing trend in calves of both / protein and globulin also exhibited groups. Serum concentrations of total which can be attributed to the enhanced absorption' of unaltered immunoglobulins by pinocytosis, the property which is lost soon after the maturation of intestinal epithelial cells. Although serum albumin showed a reduction in concentration after first colostrum intake, due to the increased absorption of unaltered immunoglobulins from colostrum, albumin concentration showed a steady rise thereafter till the end of the experiment indicating the enhanced hepatic albumin synthesis. The electrophoretic separation of serum protein components of both groups of calves agreed closely with the biochemical estimation. A steady progressive increase was observed in serum concentrations of total lipids, cholesterol and triglycerides of calves of both the groups throughout the experimental period with the magnitude being more in case of experimental group. This might be explained by the increased . fat content of colostrum, obviously due to an increased requirement of these components as membrane constituents and as energy reserves for the build up of body size and weight. Elevated insulin release stimulated by increased availability of amino acids would have favoured an increase in triglyceride synthesis. Fluctuating pattern in serum EF A status of both the groups might signify reduced mobilisation of fat reserves for energy demands after birth: Blood glucose level of calves of both the groups followed a continuous upstream trend, attributed to the increased energy demand for the enhanced growth. A progressive increment In BUN was more evident In experimental calves. This could be due to the higher protein degradation and subsequent / amino acid deamination, probably as a consequence of the high intake of crude protein and amino acids that were not utilised for protein. synthesis. The decreasing trend of serum creatinine levels in both the groups could be due to the decreased glomerular filtration rate (GFR) of serum creatinine at birth leading to a high serum level at birth, which was reduced later due to the elevated GFR of creatinine during the early days of life. Increased serum bilirubin soon after birth could probably be due to the increased destruction of foetal haemoglobin (Hb) for the replacement of adult haemoglobin after birth. The serum bilirubin levels diminished towards the last quarter of the experiment tenure. Serum thyroid hormones eT3 and T4) were not found to be influenced by time or amount or colostrum or milk fed to calves. There was a fluctuating trend of T3 and T4 ratios in both the groups. The increase in insulin concentration after birth in both the groups of calves could be a consequence of enhanced insulin secretion as a result of greater nutritional intake in the neonatal life. The present investigation proved that increased dietary protein In neonatal cross-bred calves which were fed colostrum continuously for 30 days from birth brought about elevated protein anabolism in association with haematological, biochemical and hormonal changes. They were definitely having an advantage over calves fed colostrum for three days and then switched to milk as per standard feeding regime. Postnatal growth of ruminants is chiefly influenced by metabolic hormones, the secretion of which being regulated by the circulating levels of critical amino acids. The observations of the present / study revealed that nourishing the neonatal calves with protein rich colostrum for a prolonged period ensured increased availability of amino acids, especially the critical ones which can be exploited in enhancing the growth rate of the calves. Since, there is always an interest in maximising the utilisation of protein supplements, the most expensive ingredient in ruminant ration, enhanced feeding of preserved colostrum can be a promising method of improving the weight gain and health status of neonatal calves in farm conditions. Excess of colostrum that is usually wasted in large dairy farms, could be properly preserved and fed to the calves as protein rich nutrient.ThesisItem Open Access Stress related physiological changes in cattle brought for slaughter(Department of Physiology, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 2002) Nigil Mathew; KAU; Ramnath, VThe study was conducted in adult female cattle with an average body weight of about 250 kg which were transported for slaughter to Meat Technology Unit (MTU), College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, to evaluate the effect of transport stress on certain physiological \ parameters. Group I animals comprised of 12 numbers, of which six animals each were transported from Livestock Research Station (LRS), Thiruvazhamkunnu and Cattle Breeding Farm (CBF), Thumburmuzhi and they were designated as the low density stocking group (LDS) given a floor space allowance of 1.88 m2/animal. Eight adult female cattle brought for slaughter by trucking at Corporation slaughter house, Thrissur which were given with a floor space allowance of 0.95 m2/animal formed the Group Il or high density stocking group (HDS) and eight adult female cattle brought for slaughter from University Livestock Farm, Mannuthy by walk formed the Group III category . . Body weight was recorded in LDS group cattle (group I) before and after the journey and it was observed that the percentage reduction in live weight was 2.18 per cent which was not that much appreciable due to the ideal transporting conditions provided for them. Blood samples were collected with and without anticoagulant (1) before transport, (2) immediately after the journey (zero hour post-transport) and (3) after a resting period of 18 h from LDS cattle. From HDS group, (2) immediately after the journey (zero hour post-transport) and (3) after a resting period of 18 h from LDS cattle. From HDS group, immediately after unloading (zero hour post- transport) and after 18 h of rest blood collections were done. Blood samples, were analysed for various haematological parameters as well as for mitogen induced Iymphocyte culture studies. The serum samples were also used for estimation of biochemical parameters as blood glucose level (BGL), concentration of cortisol, total serum protein, blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and activities of enzymes viz., creatine kinase (CK) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH). Comparison of the data collected at three intervals viz., before transport, zero hour and 18 h post-transport was done within the LDS group, whereas, the comparison within HDS group was done at zero and 18 h post-transport. Comparison of the effect of transport at zero hour and a post-transport resting period of 18 h was also done between LDS and HDS groups. It was observed that LDS group of cattle had a significant increase in volume of packed red blood cells (VPRC), haemoglobin (Hb) concentration and total leucocyte (WBC) count at zero hour. It was observed that most of the values returned to the pre-transport level after 18 h of rest. There was significant increase in biochemical parameters, like blood glucose level (BGL), concentration of cortisol, blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and creatine kinase (CK) activity immediately after transport and many of them returned to pre-transport level after 18 h post-transport suggesting that 18 h of resting period was sufficient before slaughter. In HDS cattle higher values were recorded for the haematological traits VIZ. VPRC, Hb concentration and total WBC count and for biochemical parameters like BGL, concentration of cortisol, BUN and CK activity when compared to LDS group. Most of the values did not decline to restore much, even after giving 18 h of rest indicating that these animals experienced severe stress during the journey. In the present study it was also found that the cortisol concentration influenced Iymphoblastogenic response to mitogen which was poor in the presence of autologus serum containing more than SO ng/rnl cortisol concentration as observed in both LDS (131.2 ±.18.33 ng/ml) and HDS (160.88 I ± 21.87 ng/ml) groups immediately after transport which indicated the immuno suppressive property of cortisol. Meat samples were collected from all the groups of cattle within an hour of slaughter and used for determination of pH and glycogen content at one hour and six hours post-slaughter. It was observed that meat samples of LDS and non-transported cattle showed a comparatively lower pH after six hours of slaughter which was inversely related to their glycogen content. It was also found that the meat samples of HDS cattle did not attain a significantly lower pH even at the end Of six hours post-slaughter owing to the reduced glycogen content when compared to LDS and non-transported groups of cattle which could result in dark cutting condition. It can be concluded that gentle handling, optimum transportation conditions and proper rest before slaughter in good lairage environment are required to minimize the stress in cattle brought for slaughter and to ensure production of good quality meat.ThesisItem Open Access Haematological studies of alpine crossbreds from birth to puberty(Department of Physiology, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 2003) Chitra, Joseph; KAU; Sreekumar, K PGoat (Capra hircus), one of the small ruminant, forms an important economic and ecological niche in small farm systems and agriculture The blood constituents differ among animals due to variety of factors viz., species, genetic, sex, age, growth, environmental and disease conditions. Clinical haematology is an indispensable adjunct to study the functions of the body in both health and disease. Haematological parameters are indicators of normal physiological and health status of an animal. The paucity of information on the haematology of goats is one of the major constraints in the physiological evaluation including the adaptability and health status. Besides very little information is available on the variation of the blood parameters of Alpine crossbred kids from birth to puberty. Physiological factors like age, sex and the type of management affect haematological parameters of an animal. Thyroid hormones viz., thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) are the major regulators of various metabolic functions in the body. Hence the present study was undertaken to evaluate the .relationship of age, sex and body weight on these haematological parameters and serum levels of T, and T3 in healthy Alpine crossbred kids from birth to puberty (six months). The present study was conducted in 48 Alpine crossbred kids (24 males and 24 females) of the University Sheep and Goat Farm, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy for a period of six months from day old (on the day of birth) to six months (puberty) period. The animals were maintained under . standard managemental conditions. Body weight of all the animals was recorded on the day of birth and thereafter at fortnightly during the entire period of study. Blood samples were collected from all the animals at monthly interval during the six month period. The blood samples collected with anticoagulant were analysed for haematological parameters like haemoglobin content (Hb), volume of packed red blood cell (vpRC), erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR), total erythrocyte (RBC) count, total leucocyte (WBC) count, differential leucocyte count (DLC), osmotic fragility of erythrocytes and specific gravity (whole blood) using standard procedures and erythrocytic indices were calculated. The serum separated from whole blood without anticoagulant was subjected for the estimation of icterus index and hormonal parameters like thyroxine (T 4) and triiodothyroxine (T3) using radioimmuno-assay technique. Clinical health status (respiration rate, pulse rate and body temperature) of all the animals were monitored at fortnightly intervals. On age-wise comparison both male and female kids showed significantly higher values for Hb concentration, VPRC and RBC count at day old which may be due to the transfusion of placental blood from the dam to the infant there by a compensatory reduction in plasma volume, leading to higher RBC count, Hb concentration and VPRC at day old. As the age advanced RBC count, Hb concentration and VPRC were decreased. Even though the value of ESR did not reveal any significant difference between age groups an increasing trend was observed as the age advanced. The velocity of sedimentation of the red blood ceIIs was inversely proportional to the number of red blood cells. The higher RBC count at day old may be the reason for a lower ESR value in day old kids in both sexes. At day old MCV showed lower value in both male and female kids. As the age advanced MCV showed an increasing trend and finally remained stable in both sexes. As the kids grew older it is likely that the requirement for oxygen may be more and with no appreciable change in the number of erythrocytes, the increased demand for oxygen is met by increased size of the erythrocytes. The value of MCR did not show any significant difference between age groups while MCRC value foIlowed a fluctuating trend throughout the six month period. Minimum and maximum osmotic resistance of erythrocytes did not show any significant difference between the sex and age groups except for the females where some differences in maximum osmotic resistance was evident during the second month. The capacity of erythrocytes to resist osmotic dilution is related directly to the corpuscle size or MCV. This is in agreement with the results of present study, that as goats having the smallest RBC, showed signs of minimum osmotic resistance even in 0.63-0.68 per cent Nacl solution. The erythrocytes absorb water from the surrounding hypotonic solution and swell until they reach a maximum size known as critical haemolytic volume after which haemolysis occurred. The smaller the erythrocyte, the earlier the initial volume reached. Eventhough specific gravity and icterus index followed a decreasing trend with age did not reveal any significant difference with age and sex. Age-wise comparison of total WBC count in both male and female kids showed an increasing trend with age except the lower value reported at day old age, though Iymphocyte and eosinophil count were decreased as the age advanced. In contrast neutrophil count showed an increasing trend as the age advanced, with the lowest value at day old. The number of monocyte followed a fluctuating trend without any significant influence of age and sex. As the age advanced the serum concentrations of T 4 and T 3 hormone showed an increasing trend with highest value at birth. The level of T4 in the blood represents the algebraic sum of thyroxine secretion and peripheral utilization. Thyroid hormones stimulate basal metabolic rate via metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids and proteins. The increased metabolic demand for oxygen, associated with the increased body size might have resulted in an increased synthesis and release of thyroid hormones. On sex-wise, comparison male kids had higher bodyweight than female kids throughout the six months period. In the early growing period female kids possessed higher values for RBC count and Hb content but towards puberty male kids had the higher values. In male animals testosterone, which has erythroid stimulating activity led to higher RBC count and Hb content at fifth and sixth month of age. In female kids, oestrogen might have suppressed the erythroid activity therefore lower values were observed for the above parameters in the same age. Erythrocytic indices did not reveal any sex-wise significant difference. Osmotic fragility of erythrocytes, specific gravity (whole blood) and icterus index also did not reveal any significant difference between male and female kids. Lymphocyte count during day old age and first month of age showed significant difference between sex, while total WBC count and number of monocytes and neutrophils did not reveal any significant difference between sex. But the eosinophil count showed significantly higher count for males on the day of birth only. No basophil could be detected in the blood smear of male and female kids. The serum hormonal profile of T4 and T3 of male kids showed significantly higher values than their females throughout the six months period, justified that the onset of rapid growth was closely related with the onset of increased serum concentration of T, and T3. In both male and female kids effect of body weight showed a negative relationship with RBC count, Hb concentration, VPRC values and lymphocyte number. In the present study, at birth body weight of male and female kids were lower. As the age advanced, male and female kids showed a gradual increase in body weight in all age groups. However, the values of RBC count, Hb concentration, VPRC, specific gravity (whole blood) and lymphocyte number showed a higher value on the day of birth and followed a decreasing trend as the age advanced. This decreasing trend of all the above parameters with an increasing trend of body weight resulted in a negative correlation between them. But in both male and female kids effect of body weight showed a positive relationship with the values of ESR, MCV, WBC count, neutrophil number and serum T4 and T3 concentration. The increasing trend of all the above parameters with increasing trend of body weight resulted in a positive correlation.
