Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur

The history of agricultural education in Kerala can be traced back to the year 1896 when a scheme was evolved in the erstwhile Travancore State to train a few young men in scientific agriculture at the Demonstration Farm, Karamana, Thiruvananthapuram, presently, the Cropping Systems Research Centre under Kerala Agricultural University. Agriculture was introduced as an optional subject in the middle school classes in the State in 1922 when an Agricultural Middle School was started at Aluva, Ernakulam District. The popularity and usefulness of this school led to the starting of similar institutions at Kottarakkara and Konni in 1928 and 1931 respectively. Agriculture was later introduced as an optional subject for Intermediate Course in 1953. In 1955, the erstwhile Government of Travancore-Cochin started the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, Thiruvananthapuram and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences at Mannuthy, Thrissur for imparting higher education in agricultural and veterinary sciences, respectively. These institutions were brought under the direct administrative control of the Department of Agriculture and the Department of Animal Husbandry, respectively. With the formation of Kerala State in 1956, these two colleges were affiliated to the University of Kerala. The post-graduate programmes leading to M.Sc. (Ag), M.V.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees were started in 1961, 1962 and 1965 respectively. On the recommendation of the Second National Education Commission (1964-66) headed by Dr. D.S. Kothari, the then Chairman of the University Grants Commission, one Agricultural University in each State was established. The State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) were established in India as an integral part of the National Agricultural Research System to give the much needed impetus to Agriculture Education and Research in the Country. As a result the Kerala Agricultural University (KAU) was established on 24th February 1971 by virtue of the Act 33 of 1971 and started functioning on 1st February 1972. The Kerala Agricultural University is the 15th in the series of the SAUs. In accordance with the provisions of KAU Act of 1971, the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, were brought under the Kerala Agricultural University. In addition, twenty one agricultural and animal husbandry research stations were also transferred to the KAU for taking up research and extension programmes on various crops, animals, birds, etc. During 2011, Kerala Agricultural University was trifurcated into Kerala Veterinary and Animal Sciences University (KVASU), Kerala University of Fisheries and Ocean Studies (KUFOS) and Kerala Agricultural University (KAU). Now the University has seven colleges (four Agriculture, one Agricultural Engineering, one Forestry, one Co-operation Banking & Management), six RARSs, seven KVKs, 15 Research Stations and 16 Research and Extension Units under the faculties of Agriculture, Agricultural Engineering and Forestry. In addition, one Academy on Climate Change Adaptation and one Institute of Agricultural Technology offering M.Sc. (Integrated) Climate Change Adaptation and Diploma in Agricultural Sciences respectively are also functioning in Kerala Agricultural University.

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Open Access
Effect of induced stress and antistress agents on the physiological parameters in broiler chicken
(Department of Physiology, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 2003) Srinivas Reddy, Bellur; KAU; Philomina, P T
In modern poultry production system various factors namely floor space reduction, feed and water restriction, high environmental temperature, vaccination, medication, debeaking etc. have the potential to induce stress in poultry which results in poor performance as well as reduction in immune response as the nutrients normally utilized for growth and production are diverted to counteract the stress and survival. The study was undertaken with the objective of evaluating the influence of induced stress and anti stress agents (dietary ascorbic acid and Zeetress®) on various physiological, biochemical and production parameters in broiler chicken. Fifty six numbers of day old broiler chicks (Vencob) procured from a commercial hatchery were reared in battery cages under the standard managemental conditions upto four weeks of age. Then they were randomly selected and divided into seven groups (G-I to G- VII) with eight birds per group. The birds in different groups were as follows: G-I as the control, G-II as floor space reduced group (33%), G-III as floor space reduced group supplemented with Zeetress® @ 0.01%, G-IV as floor space reduced group supplemented with ascorbic acid @ 0.02%, G- V as 30% feed restriction, G- VI as 30% feed restriction with dietary supplementation of Zeetress® @ 0.0 I % and G- VII as 30% feed restriction with dietary supplementation of ascorbic acid @ 0.02%. The birds were maintained in battery cages under standard managemental conditions on broiler ration with the exception of floor space reduction, feed restriction and incorporation of dietary anti stress agents. Production parameters such as weekly weight gain and feed efficiency were analyzed on weekly basis. Blood was collected with suitable anticoagulants, initially at fourth and then at sixth and eighth week of age. Whole blood was utilized for analysis of haematological parameters, heterophil: lyrnphocyte (H:L) ratio and mitogen induced lymphocyte proliferation test. Plasma was utilized for biochemical analyses i.e. for protein profile, lipid profile and estimation of glucose, uric acid and cortisol. The data were statistically analysed by appropriate tests. The birds of G- V group showed significantly lower values of TEC, Hb, VPRC and TLC at sixth and eight week of age. The dietary supplementation of Zeetress® and ascorbic acid in floor space reduced groups feed restricted groups did not show any significant influence on the values of TEC, Hb, VPRC, ESR, TLC when compared to the birds of respective stress induced groups G-II and G- V. The birds of stress induced groups G-II and G- V had lower lymphocyte count and higher heterophil and basophil count, higher H:L ratio and suppressed mitogen induced lyrnphocyte proliferation (probably due to a rise in level of plasma corticosteroids as a result of stress response) when compared to birds of G-J group, both at sixth and eighth week of age. Dietary supplementation of Zeetress® and ascorbic acid in floor space reduced groups and feed restricted groups elevated the lymphocyte counts, suppressed heterophil and" basophil counts, H:L ratio and considerably improved the mitogen induced lymphoblastogenic response both at sixth and eighth week of age. In the present study the birds of G-II and G- V group had no significant variation in plasma protein profile and glucose levels but had increased plasma concentration of ortisol (probably due to stress induced adrenal hyper activity) and decreased uric acid, when compared to birds of control group G-I, both at sixth and eighth week of age. Dietary Zeetress® and ascorbic acid supplementation in floor space reduced groups and feed restricted groups showed a lower plasma concentration of cortisol both at sixth and eighth week of age, and significantly increased uric acid at eighth week of age. Dietary supplementation of Zeetress® and ascorbic acid in floor space reduced groups decreased plasma concentration of cholesterol both at sixth and eighth week of age and total lipids at sixth week of age. In birds of feed restricted G- V group plasma concentration of cholesterol, triglycerides and total lipids were lower both at sixth and eighth week of age when compared to birds of control group G-I. The dietary supplementation of Zeetress® and ascorbic acid in feed restricted groups had no significant influence on plasma concentration of cholesterol both at sixth and eighth week of age. However, there was an increased concentration of triglycerides both at sixth and eighth week of age with significant increase in total lipids at eighth week of age, when compared to birds of G- V group. There was no significant variation In body weight and weight gain of birds in all floor space reduced groups compared to birds of control group (G-I) at all weeks of age with the exception of lower weight gain in G-IJI and G-IV when compared to G-II at eighth week of age. The body weight and weight gain in the birds of all feed restricted groups were lower when compared to birds of control group (0-1), at all weeks of age. A perusal of the overall feed efficiency from 5 to 8 weeks of age revealed that the birds of 0- VI group supplemented with Zeetress® recorded a superior FE (2.22) whereas an inferior value of 2.59 was noted in 0- V group without any dietary antistress agent. The control group recorded a FE of 2.29. Zeetress® supplementation improved overall FE in feed restricted group (0- VI). On the other hand this advantage was not observed in floor space reduced group (O-IlI). Dietary ascorbic acid improved overall FE only in case of feed restricted group 0- VII when compared to that of 0- V group. However, in floor space reduced group (O-IV), ascorbic acid supplementation could not improve the FE. The observations of the present study revealed that both feed restriction and floor space reduction resulted in some sort of chronic stress which led to variation in haematological and biochemical parameters, and impaired growth (in feed restricted groups). Analysis of TLC, OLC, mitogen induced Iymphocyte blastogenic response and plasma cortisol values indicated that there was a marked level of immunosuppression in the stressed birds. The magnitude of variation in most of these parameters was higher at sixth week of age when compared to that of eighth week values indicating some sort of habituation/ adaptation occurred upon chronic stress in the broiler chicken. The antistress agents - Zeetress® and ascorbic acid were equally effective in reversal of stress induced alterations in haematological, biochemical and production parameters.
Open Access
Evaluation of certain metabolic and haematological parameters in crossbred calves fed with rumen undegradable soyabean meal
(Department of Physiology, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 2002) Yuvaraj, N; KAU; Ramnath, V
Protecting ruminal feed proteins by formaldehyde treatment decreased their solubility and degradation in the rumen, eventually resulted in an increased availability of post-rumina I amino acids and this could be exploited for enhancing the growth rate of young ruminants as crossbred calves. Post natal growth in ruminants is chiefly in'fluenced by the metabolic hormones, whose secretions are, in turn, regulated by the circulating levels of critical amino acids. Hence, the objective of the present study was to determine and correlate the levels of certain metabolic hormones and other related haematological cum biochemical parameters in growing crossbred calves, fed with concentrate ration supplemented with untreated and formaldehyde treated soyabean meal. Twelve numbers of female crossbred calves of six months of age of the University Livestock Farm, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, were divided into two groups, viz., Group I and Group IT, with six calves in each group. One third of the quantity of concentrate ration to be given to each animal was replaced by raw soyabean meal (solvent extracted) in animals of Group I and 1 % formaldehyde treated soyabean meal in animals of Group Il, during the experimental period of 90 days (180 to 270 d of age). Drinking water and roughage were provided ad libitum. All the animals were maintained under standard managemental conditions. Fortnightly body weight of all the animals were recorded during the entire period of study. Blood samples were collected from all animals of both groups at the initial phase of experiment (180 d), thereafter on every 14 days as well as one month after the end of the experiment (300 d). The blood samples were analysed for blood glucose level (BGL) and haematological parameters like haemoglobin content, total erythrocyte count and total leucocyte count, volume of packed red blood corpuscles and erythrocytic indices using standard procedures. The serum was subjected for the estimation of biochemical parameters such as concentrations of total protein, albumin, globulin, total lipids, cholesterol, triglycerides, non-esterified fatty acids (NEF A), urea nitrogen, creatinine and bilirubin employing commercial kits. Hormonal traits like thyroxine (T 4), triiodothyronine (T 3) and insulin were also evaluated using radioimmuno assays. On analysing the proximate principles of various concentrates, it was found that both the groups received increased dietary protein intake and particularly animals of Group Il, through protected proteins. Animals of Group Il recorded a higher daily weight gain of 352.731 g/animal/day in comparison to 327.460 g/animal/day of animals of Group 1. The haematological parameters screened revealed a persistently increasing trend, with non-significant differences between groups. This upstream trend may be associated with an increased body weight gain of the animals and hence, with an increased requirement. Serum concentrations of total protein and albumin pursued an increasing trend in both groups with non- significant differences between them. This signified the elevated protein status of the animals with positive nitrogen balance. Moreover, there appears to be a direct correlation between albumin turn-over and body size (Kaneko et al., 1997). Serum globulin concentration revealed fluctuating yet an increasing trend in calves of both groups, suggesting an increased hepatic synthesis of a and ~ portions of globulins. A continuous upstream trend was evident in serum totallipids, cholesterol content and triglycerides concentration of calves of both the groups during the trial period, indicating an increased requirement of these constituents as membrane constituents and as energy reserve, for the build up of body size and weight. Increased insulin release stimulated by increased availability of post ruminal amino acids would have favoured an increased triglycerides synthesis. Decreasing trend in serum NEF A status of both the groups signified the reduced lipolysis for energy purpose with increased dietary protein intake. Blood glucose lev'el of calves of both groups revealed a pertinent increasing trend, elaborating the increased energy demands for the enhanced growth process. An increasing trend in serum urea nitrogen concentrations observed in calves of both the groups might be due to deamination and conversion into urea of excess protein in calves of both groups fed over and above the actual requirement. Serum levels of creatinine and bilirubin in both groups of animals showed a decreasing trend which may be attributed to the fine balance in their level by increased protein supplementation. Serum concentrations of hormones as T4, T3 and insulin exhibited an increasing trend in calves of both the groups. Increasing trend in insulin concentration demonstrated a positive relationship between amino acid absorption and insulin release and might have promoted protein anabolism resulting in an increased body size with positive nitrogen balance. The increased metabolic demand for oxygen associated with the increased body size might have resulted in an increased synthesis and release of thyroid hormones, with significant (pdifferences between groups. The fluctuating T4:T3 ratios in both the groups correspond~d to the episodic release of the hormones. Results of the present study substantiate that increased dietary proteins had brought about elevated protein anabolism and associated haematological, biochemical and hormonal changes in growing crossbred calves offered with concentrate ration supplemented with rumen protected soyabean meal and this was certainly having an advantage in the crossbred calves, over the calves provided with increased rumen degradable proteins. Since protein supplements . are generally the most expensive ingredients in ruminant rations, thus there is an interest in maximizing their utilization.
Open Access
Effect of blue green alga (Spirulina platensis) on haematological, biochemical and fertility parameters of egg type male chicken
(Department of Physiology, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 2003) Sethu Nair, C; KAU; Girish Varma, G
Enhancement of total production without compromising aspects of wholesomeness and subject Iconsumer lenvironmental safety of the produce forms the new challenge of Indian poultry industry. Since nutrition is the single largest external factor affecting performance of the stock and accounting lion share of the input cost, nutritional manipulations have widely been used to take up this challenge. Especially in the wake of set backs from potential residual hazards of anabolic steroids used as growth promoting feed additives, use of certain blue green algae as dietary supplement offers more innocuous organic alternatives, for being safe to the subject, consumers and environment. Owing to their success in human health with anabolic and therapeutic effects cyanobacteria, the blue green algae, are being tried in livestock/poultry production as well. Spirulina is rich in protein, vitamins and provitamins such as carotenoids, and minerals. Protein from spirulina is believed to be highly digestible due to the lack of a cell wall; it contains 18 amino acids, major ones being lysine, arginine, threonine, methionine and phenylalanine. High levels of arginine is normally believed to be insulinogenic, indirectly through stimulation of growth hormone secretion The present study forms part of an exploration of growth promoting and fertility augmenting aspects of one of the popular species of blue green algae, Spirulina platensis, envisaging evaluation of its influence on haematological, biochemical and fertility parameters of Austra-white male chicken, when used as a dietary supplement. Thirty-two numbers of eight-week-old Austra-white male chickens were reared under standard management conditions in battery cages in Department of Physiology, College Of Veterinary and Animal Sciences. The birds were selected randomly and divided into two groups, G I (control) and G 11 (spirulina supplemented) comprising of sixteen birds in each. Birds of group G I were solely fed with standard layer rution und formed lhe controls in the experiment while birds of G 1I group were fed layer ration with dietary supplementation of Spirulina platensis at the level of 2.5% of feed. Both rations were made isocaloric and isonitrogenous. Feed and water were provided to birds ad libitum. Body weight of the birds was taken at monthly intervals from initial period (eight week of age) to thirty-two weeks of age. Blood was collected at monthly intervals from third to eighth months of age. Estimation of haematological parameters comprised total erythrocyte count (TEC), haemoglobin content (Hb), volume of packed red cells (VPRC), erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) and total leukocyte count (TLC). Erythrocytic indices were calculated from the estimated values of TEC, Hb and VPRC. Biochemical profile of plasma included estimation of total protein, albumin, globulin, albumin globulin (A: G) ratio (protein profile), cholesterol, triglycerides, total lipids (lipid profile), blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and bilirubin at monthly intervals from third to eighth month. Plasma antioxidant status was assessed by estimating catalase enzyme activity and lipid peroxidation level. Semen was collected at twenty- fourth, twenty-eighth and thirty-second weeks of age. Semen evaluation was done by observing the motility, mass activity, semen volume, methylene blue reduction time (MBRT), percentage of live sperms (differential staining and hypo osmolarity swelling) and heat and cold shock resistance tests in the collected semen samples. Birds were sacrificed at thirty-two weeks of age and the relative organ weight of liver,' spleen, pancreas and testes was estimated. Lipid peroxidation level of homogenized samples of liver, spleen, pancreas and testes were also estimated. The data were statistically analysed using appropriate tests. Body weight of birds fed with spirulina (G II group) was significantly higher when compared to control (G I group). Relative organ weight also showed a significantly higher relative weight for spleen, pancreas and testes. The birds of G II group tSpirulina platensis- fed) showed a significantly higher values of TEC, Hb concentration, VPRC and TLC compared to control (G I group) birds. The value of ESR was significantly lower for the spirulina fed group. Plasma protein profile indicated a significant higher concentration of total protein, albumin and globulin levels in spirulina-fed group. Plasma lipid profile had a low total lipid and cholesterol level in spirulina fed birds of G II group when compared to the controls in G I group. However, the triglyceride levels was significantly higher for spirulina fed birds (G II group). Plasma concentrations of BUN and bilirubin were also significantly higher for G 11 group. The results indicated a strong haematopoietic effect of spirulina and its usefulness as a protein rich nutritional supplement for poultry. Plasma antioxidant activity was significantly higher for G II group in the sense that the spirulina fed group showed an increased blood catalase activity and a decreased plasma lipid peroxidation levels. Estimation of peroxidation level in homogenised samples of liver and testes also had a significantly lower peroxidation level in birds of G 11 group. Results underlined the strong antioxidant capacity of spirulina. Semen evaluation studies revealed a significantly higher semen volume, motility, and percentage of live sperms in semen samples from birds of G II group (spirulina fed) when compared to G I group. Semen samples from G II group also showed a significantly lower methylene blue reduction time compared to G I group. Heat and cold shock resistance test failed to show any significant difference between the two groups. Results indicated the fertility augmenting property of spirulina. The present study is consistent with earlier reports of growth promoting and erythropoietic effects of spirulina. Free radical scavenging effect of this species of alga has caused a marked increase in the antioxidant status of the subjects, congruent with earlier findings. Additionally, this is the first publication to report indications of a fertility augmenting effect of this alga in male birds. However, confirmation of the latter effect needs further investigation, preferably with insemination studies.
Open Access
Hypoglycaemic efficacy of scoparia dulcis and costus species in albino rats
(Department of Physiology, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 2005) Balaji, S; KAU; Sreekumar, K P
The present study was undertaken to assess the hypoglycaemic activity of aqueous and alcoholic extract of Scoparia dulcis and Costus pictus @ 500mg/kg body weight orally in alloxan induced diabetic rats and also in combination and to compare their efficacy with a standard oral hypoglycaemic drug, glibenclamide. The experiment was conducted in seventy-two male Sprague-Dawley rats for a period of 60days, with eight animals in each group (Group I to IX). Group I served as normal control and Group II is diabetic control. Aqueous leaf extract of Scoparia dulcis and Costus pictus @ 500 mg/kg b.w orally were given to Group III and IV, respectively for 60 days. Group V and VI were given alcoholic leaf extract of Scoparia dulcis and Costus pictus @ 500 mg/kg b.w orally, respectively for 60 days. Group VII and VIII received combination of aqueous and alcoholic leaf extract of Scoparia dulcis and Costus pictus @ 500 mg/kg b.w orally, respectively for 60 days. Glibenclamide @ 0.5mg/animal/day was fed to Group IX. Body weight was recorded and RBC, WBC, total haemoglobin and glycosylated haemoglobin content were estimated on zero day, 7th, 14th, 28th, 56th, and 60th day of the experiment. Plasma glucose, plasma total lipids, plasma total cholesterol, triglycerides, plasma HDL-C, plasma total protein, plasma albumin, plasma ALT and AST were also estimated. The liver glycogen and plasma copper, iron and zinc content were estimated at the end of the experimental period. Body weight was gradually increased during the experimental period in all treated group except the diabetic control, which showed a significant (p0.001) reduction in body weight. The RBC and WBC values did not show any significant change during the entire course of the experiment and maintained a normal level. The total haemoglobin content was increased in the animals treated with combination of alcoholic leaf extract of Scoparia dulcis and Costus pictus by two months of experiment. Glycosylated haemoglobin level also significantly decreased in all the treatment groups, which is comparable to that of the animals treated with glibenclamide. The animals treated with alcoholic leaf extract of Scoparia dulcis produced a marked reduction in plasma glucose level, which was higher than the reduction produced by the animals treated with glibenclamide at the end of the experiment. The plasma total lipids and plasma total cholesterol content were markedly reduced in the animals treated with a combination of alcoholic leaf extract of Scoparia dulcis and Costus pictus, which is comparable to that produced by glibenclamide treated group. The plasma triglyceride, plasma LDL-C and VLDL-C level were markedly reduced in the animals treated with alcoholic leaf extract of Scoparia dulcis.. The HDL-C level was increased in the animals treated with combination of alcoholic leaf extract of Scoparia dulcis and Costus pictus than the animals treated with glibenclamide. The plasma total protein and albumin content was increased in the animals treated with aqueous leaf extract of Costus pictus. The globulin content and A/G ratio was increased in the animals treated with a combination of aqueous leaf extract of Scoparia dulcis and Costus pictus. The liver enzymes such as ALT and AST were reduced in the animals treated with alcoholic leaf extract of Scoparia dulcis. The liver glycogen content was increased in animals treated with alcoholic leaf extract of Costus pictus, which is comparable to that of animals treated with alcoholic leaf extract of Scoparia dulcis. The plasma copper and iron content did not show any change but the zinc content was increased in all the treated groups than the diabetic control animals.
Open Access
Metabolic and endocrine profile of crossbred pre-ruminant calves under extended colostrum feeding
(Department of Physiology, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 2003) Babitha, V; KAU; Philomina, P T
Colostrum is a highly fortified source of nutrients having seven times proteins, twice the total solids, higher content of vitamins, minerals and a very high immune value than normal milk. In most of the commercial dairy farms where day old weaning of calves is practiced, lion share of this potent calf protein supplement is practically wasted since colostrum is unmarketable for human consumption. In this circumstance, the present study was undertaken with the objective of evaluating the effects of enhanced feeding of preserved colostrum in neonatal cross-bred calves on the health status, growth, haematological, biochemical and hormonal parameters and to find any correlations exist among these factors during their first month of life. Fresh colostrum was collected in hygienic conditions from recently calved healthy cows from the first six milkings and then pooled. The pooled colostrum was preserved in dry sterile bottles by deep freezing at -20°C until fed to calves. Crude protein content of colostrum and whole milk were estimated. Total. viable count of pooled colostrum samples were recorded before and after ultra violet irradiation for 30 minutes. Twelve numbers of healthy neonatal crossbred calves of either sex of the Kerala Agricultural University Livestock Farm, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy were divided into two groups as Group I (control) and Group II (experimental) with six calves in each group. The calves of group I were fed with colostrum for three days and then milk (one-tenth of body weight) as followed in the farm. The calves of group 11 were fed with colostrum for 30 days of age continuously at the rate of one-tenth of body weight. All calves / were provided with drinking water ad libitum and calf starter (250 g/day/calf) from 15 days of age. The animals were maintained under standard management conditions. Regular monitoring of clinical health status and individual weighing at weekly intervals from day zero (on the day of birth) to one month of all the calves were performed and recorded. Blood samples were collected from the calves of both groups soon after birth (zero day), thereafter 18 h after birth (first day), sixth day, twelfth day, eighteenth day, twenty fourth day and thirtieth day of age. The blood samples were analysed for blood glucose level and haematological parameters like haemoglobin content, total erythrocyte, total leukocyte count, volume of packed red blood cells (VPRC) and subsequently the erythrocyte indices were calculated. Estimation of concentration of serum total protein, albumin, globulin, total lipids, cholesterol, triglycerides, non- esterified fatty acids (NEF A), urea nitrogen (BUN), creatinine and bilirubin were conducted. Hormonal profile of serum thyroxine (T4), triiodothyronine (T3) and insulin were estimated. Clinical parameters of both the groups of calves were within the normal range. Calves of group II recorded a higher weekly body weight gain. Of the various haemotological parameters evaluated, haemoglobin concentration and volume of packed red blood cells exhibited a declining trend, probably due to the haemodilution after intake of colostrum and milk. The total erythrocyte count remained almost constant whereas WBe count showed a persistently an ascending pattern in both the groups, increasing trend in calves of both / protein and globulin also exhibited groups. Serum concentrations of total which can be attributed to the enhanced absorption' of unaltered immunoglobulins by pinocytosis, the property which is lost soon after the maturation of intestinal epithelial cells. Although serum albumin showed a reduction in concentration after first colostrum intake, due to the increased absorption of unaltered immunoglobulins from colostrum, albumin concentration showed a steady rise thereafter till the end of the experiment indicating the enhanced hepatic albumin synthesis. The electrophoretic separation of serum protein components of both groups of calves agreed closely with the biochemical estimation. A steady progressive increase was observed in serum concentrations of total lipids, cholesterol and triglycerides of calves of both the groups throughout the experimental period with the magnitude being more in case of experimental group. This might be explained by the increased . fat content of colostrum, obviously due to an increased requirement of these components as membrane constituents and as energy reserves for the build up of body size and weight. Elevated insulin release stimulated by increased availability of amino acids would have favoured an increase in triglyceride synthesis. Fluctuating pattern in serum EF A status of both the groups might signify reduced mobilisation of fat reserves for energy demands after birth: Blood glucose level of calves of both the groups followed a continuous upstream trend, attributed to the increased energy demand for the enhanced growth. A progressive increment In BUN was more evident In experimental calves. This could be due to the higher protein degradation and subsequent / amino acid deamination, probably as a consequence of the high intake of crude protein and amino acids that were not utilised for protein. synthesis. The decreasing trend of serum creatinine levels in both the groups could be due to the decreased glomerular filtration rate (GFR) of serum creatinine at birth leading to a high serum level at birth, which was reduced later due to the elevated GFR of creatinine during the early days of life. Increased serum bilirubin soon after birth could probably be due to the increased destruction of foetal haemoglobin (Hb) for the replacement of adult haemoglobin after birth. The serum bilirubin levels diminished towards the last quarter of the experiment tenure. Serum thyroid hormones eT3 and T4) were not found to be influenced by time or amount or colostrum or milk fed to calves. There was a fluctuating trend of T3 and T4 ratios in both the groups. The increase in insulin concentration after birth in both the groups of calves could be a consequence of enhanced insulin secretion as a result of greater nutritional intake in the neonatal life. The present investigation proved that increased dietary protein In neonatal cross-bred calves which were fed colostrum continuously for 30 days from birth brought about elevated protein anabolism in association with haematological, biochemical and hormonal changes. They were definitely having an advantage over calves fed colostrum for three days and then switched to milk as per standard feeding regime. Postnatal growth of ruminants is chiefly influenced by metabolic hormones, the secretion of which being regulated by the circulating levels of critical amino acids. The observations of the present / study revealed that nourishing the neonatal calves with protein rich colostrum for a prolonged period ensured increased availability of amino acids, especially the critical ones which can be exploited in enhancing the growth rate of the calves. Since, there is always an interest in maximising the utilisation of protein supplements, the most expensive ingredient in ruminant ration, enhanced feeding of preserved colostrum can be a promising method of improving the weight gain and health status of neonatal calves in farm conditions. Excess of colostrum that is usually wasted in large dairy farms, could be properly preserved and fed to the calves as protein rich nutrient.
Open Access
Stress related physiological changes in cattle brought for slaughter
(Department of Physiology, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 2002) Nigil Mathew; KAU; Ramnath, V
The study was conducted in adult female cattle with an average body weight of about 250 kg which were transported for slaughter to Meat Technology Unit (MTU), College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, to evaluate the effect of transport stress on certain physiological \ parameters. Group I animals comprised of 12 numbers, of which six animals each were transported from Livestock Research Station (LRS), Thiruvazhamkunnu and Cattle Breeding Farm (CBF), Thumburmuzhi and they were designated as the low density stocking group (LDS) given a floor space allowance of 1.88 m2/animal. Eight adult female cattle brought for slaughter by trucking at Corporation slaughter house, Thrissur which were given with a floor space allowance of 0.95 m2/animal formed the Group Il or high density stocking group (HDS) and eight adult female cattle brought for slaughter from University Livestock Farm, Mannuthy by walk formed the Group III category . . Body weight was recorded in LDS group cattle (group I) before and after the journey and it was observed that the percentage reduction in live weight was 2.18 per cent which was not that much appreciable due to the ideal transporting conditions provided for them. Blood samples were collected with and without anticoagulant (1) before transport, (2) immediately after the journey (zero hour post-transport) and (3) after a resting period of 18 h from LDS cattle. From HDS group, (2) immediately after the journey (zero hour post-transport) and (3) after a resting period of 18 h from LDS cattle. From HDS group, immediately after unloading (zero hour post- transport) and after 18 h of rest blood collections were done. Blood samples, were analysed for various haematological parameters as well as for mitogen induced Iymphocyte culture studies. The serum samples were also used for estimation of biochemical parameters as blood glucose level (BGL), concentration of cortisol, total serum protein, blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and activities of enzymes viz., creatine kinase (CK) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH). Comparison of the data collected at three intervals viz., before transport, zero hour and 18 h post-transport was done within the LDS group, whereas, the comparison within HDS group was done at zero and 18 h post-transport. Comparison of the effect of transport at zero hour and a post-transport resting period of 18 h was also done between LDS and HDS groups. It was observed that LDS group of cattle had a significant increase in volume of packed red blood cells (VPRC), haemoglobin (Hb) concentration and total leucocyte (WBC) count at zero hour. It was observed that most of the values returned to the pre-transport level after 18 h of rest. There was significant increase in biochemical parameters, like blood glucose level (BGL), concentration of cortisol, blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and creatine kinase (CK) activity immediately after transport and many of them returned to pre-transport level after 18 h post-transport suggesting that 18 h of resting period was sufficient before slaughter. In HDS cattle higher values were recorded for the haematological traits VIZ. VPRC, Hb concentration and total WBC count and for biochemical parameters like BGL, concentration of cortisol, BUN and CK activity when compared to LDS group. Most of the values did not decline to restore much, even after giving 18 h of rest indicating that these animals experienced severe stress during the journey. In the present study it was also found that the cortisol concentration influenced Iymphoblastogenic response to mitogen which was poor in the presence of autologus serum containing more than SO ng/rnl cortisol concentration as observed in both LDS (131.2 ±.18.33 ng/ml) and HDS (160.88 I ± 21.87 ng/ml) groups immediately after transport which indicated the immuno suppressive property of cortisol. Meat samples were collected from all the groups of cattle within an hour of slaughter and used for determination of pH and glycogen content at one hour and six hours post-slaughter. It was observed that meat samples of LDS and non-transported cattle showed a comparatively lower pH after six hours of slaughter which was inversely related to their glycogen content. It was also found that the meat samples of HDS cattle did not attain a significantly lower pH even at the end Of six hours post-slaughter owing to the reduced glycogen content when compared to LDS and non-transported groups of cattle which could result in dark cutting condition. It can be concluded that gentle handling, optimum transportation conditions and proper rest before slaughter in good lairage environment are required to minimize the stress in cattle brought for slaughter and to ensure production of good quality meat.
Open Access
Haematological studies of alpine crossbreds from birth to puberty
(Department of Physiology, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 2003) Chitra, Joseph; KAU; Sreekumar, K P
Goat (Capra hircus), one of the small ruminant, forms an important economic and ecological niche in small farm systems and agriculture The blood constituents differ among animals due to variety of factors viz., species, genetic, sex, age, growth, environmental and disease conditions. Clinical haematology is an indispensable adjunct to study the functions of the body in both health and disease. Haematological parameters are indicators of normal physiological and health status of an animal. The paucity of information on the haematology of goats is one of the major constraints in the physiological evaluation including the adaptability and health status. Besides very little information is available on the variation of the blood parameters of Alpine crossbred kids from birth to puberty. Physiological factors like age, sex and the type of management affect haematological parameters of an animal. Thyroid hormones viz., thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) are the major regulators of various metabolic functions in the body. Hence the present study was undertaken to evaluate the .relationship of age, sex and body weight on these haematological parameters and serum levels of T, and T3 in healthy Alpine crossbred kids from birth to puberty (six months). The present study was conducted in 48 Alpine crossbred kids (24 males and 24 females) of the University Sheep and Goat Farm, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy for a period of six months from day old (on the day of birth) to six months (puberty) period. The animals were maintained under . standard managemental conditions. Body weight of all the animals was recorded on the day of birth and thereafter at fortnightly during the entire period of study. Blood samples were collected from all the animals at monthly interval during the six month period. The blood samples collected with anticoagulant were analysed for haematological parameters like haemoglobin content (Hb), volume of packed red blood cell (vpRC), erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR), total erythrocyte (RBC) count, total leucocyte (WBC) count, differential leucocyte count (DLC), osmotic fragility of erythrocytes and specific gravity (whole blood) using standard procedures and erythrocytic indices were calculated. The serum separated from whole blood without anticoagulant was subjected for the estimation of icterus index and hormonal parameters like thyroxine (T 4) and triiodothyroxine (T3) using radioimmuno-assay technique. Clinical health status (respiration rate, pulse rate and body temperature) of all the animals were monitored at fortnightly intervals. On age-wise comparison both male and female kids showed significantly higher values for Hb concentration, VPRC and RBC count at day old which may be due to the transfusion of placental blood from the dam to the infant there by a compensatory reduction in plasma volume, leading to higher RBC count, Hb concentration and VPRC at day old. As the age advanced RBC count, Hb concentration and VPRC were decreased. Even though the value of ESR did not reveal any significant difference between age groups an increasing trend was observed as the age advanced. The velocity of sedimentation of the red blood ceIIs was inversely proportional to the number of red blood cells. The higher RBC count at day old may be the reason for a lower ESR value in day old kids in both sexes. At day old MCV showed lower value in both male and female kids. As the age advanced MCV showed an increasing trend and finally remained stable in both sexes. As the kids grew older it is likely that the requirement for oxygen may be more and with no appreciable change in the number of erythrocytes, the increased demand for oxygen is met by increased size of the erythrocytes. The value of MCR did not show any significant difference between age groups while MCRC value foIlowed a fluctuating trend throughout the six month period. Minimum and maximum osmotic resistance of erythrocytes did not show any significant difference between the sex and age groups except for the females where some differences in maximum osmotic resistance was evident during the second month. The capacity of erythrocytes to resist osmotic dilution is related directly to the corpuscle size or MCV. This is in agreement with the results of present study, that as goats having the smallest RBC, showed signs of minimum osmotic resistance even in 0.63-0.68 per cent Nacl solution. The erythrocytes absorb water from the surrounding hypotonic solution and swell until they reach a maximum size known as critical haemolytic volume after which haemolysis occurred. The smaller the erythrocyte, the earlier the initial volume reached. Eventhough specific gravity and icterus index followed a decreasing trend with age did not reveal any significant difference with age and sex. Age-wise comparison of total WBC count in both male and female kids showed an increasing trend with age except the lower value reported at day old age, though Iymphocyte and eosinophil count were decreased as the age advanced. In contrast neutrophil count showed an increasing trend as the age advanced, with the lowest value at day old. The number of monocyte followed a fluctuating trend without any significant influence of age and sex. As the age advanced the serum concentrations of T 4 and T 3 hormone showed an increasing trend with highest value at birth. The level of T4 in the blood represents the algebraic sum of thyroxine secretion and peripheral utilization. Thyroid hormones stimulate basal metabolic rate via metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids and proteins. The increased metabolic demand for oxygen, associated with the increased body size might have resulted in an increased synthesis and release of thyroid hormones. On sex-wise, comparison male kids had higher bodyweight than female kids throughout the six months period. In the early growing period female kids possessed higher values for RBC count and Hb content but towards puberty male kids had the higher values. In male animals testosterone, which has erythroid stimulating activity led to higher RBC count and Hb content at fifth and sixth month of age. In female kids, oestrogen might have suppressed the erythroid activity therefore lower values were observed for the above parameters in the same age. Erythrocytic indices did not reveal any sex-wise significant difference. Osmotic fragility of erythrocytes, specific gravity (whole blood) and icterus index also did not reveal any significant difference between male and female kids. Lymphocyte count during day old age and first month of age showed significant difference between sex, while total WBC count and number of monocytes and neutrophils did not reveal any significant difference between sex. But the eosinophil count showed significantly higher count for males on the day of birth only. No basophil could be detected in the blood smear of male and female kids. The serum hormonal profile of T4 and T3 of male kids showed significantly higher values than their females throughout the six months period, justified that the onset of rapid growth was closely related with the onset of increased serum concentration of T, and T3. In both male and female kids effect of body weight showed a negative relationship with RBC count, Hb concentration, VPRC values and lymphocyte number. In the present study, at birth body weight of male and female kids were lower. As the age advanced, male and female kids showed a gradual increase in body weight in all age groups. However, the values of RBC count, Hb concentration, VPRC, specific gravity (whole blood) and lymphocyte number showed a higher value on the day of birth and followed a decreasing trend as the age advanced. This decreasing trend of all the above parameters with an increasing trend of body weight resulted in a negative correlation between them. But in both male and female kids effect of body weight showed a positive relationship with the values of ESR, MCV, WBC count, neutrophil number and serum T4 and T3 concentration. The increasing trend of all the above parameters with increasing trend of body weight resulted in a positive correlation.
Open Access
Assessment of mineral status during pregnancy in crossbred cattle
(Department of Physiology, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 2000) Shibu, K Jacob; KAU; Philomina, P T
Twenty, healthy crossbred heifers stationed at Kerala Agricultural University - Cattle Breeding Farm, Thumburrnuzhi, were utilized for the study. The parameters estimated in the experimental animals comprise of serum profile of certain macro and microelements as calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sodium, .potassium, iron, copper, zinc and haematological parameters like red blood cells count, haemoglobin content, volume of packed red cells and erythrocyte indices before conception and at different stages of pregnancy viz., from third month to ninth month at monthly intervals and first month of lactation. The serum calcium level showed significant variations during the period of study, which decreased from the control level till fifth month of pregnancy and then increased from sixth month of gestation and reached the highest level by ninth month of gestation thereafter, decreased during first month of lactation (table 1). The increased serum calcium level from sixth month of pregnancy and early lactation could be due to an increased demand of this element for the formation of fetal skeleton and organogenesis as well as for drainage into the milk Serum inorganic phosphorus concentration was increased from third month of pregnancy and the highest level was attained by fifth month of pregnancy. Later the level of serum inorganic phosphorus gradually declined from sixth month to ninth month of pregnancy. These fluctuations in serum phosphorus during pregnancy might be due to the mobilisation of calcium and phosphorus from the dam's skeleton or due to an increased G.I tract absorption during the period. Besides the utilisation of calcium for fetal growth, calcium and phosphorus play a vital role in the action of hormones and enzymes at subcellular levels in an integrated fashion in reproduction of young heifers. During first month of early lactation still lower content of serum inorganic phosphorus was observed which could be due to its drainage into milk. There was an increase in the serum magnesium concentration from the preconception level during different stages of pregnancy and the same was significantly higher from sixth to ninth month of pregnancy which later dropped a little during first month of lactation as observed in the case of serum calcium. The increased magnesium level during the period of gestation could be due to the increased gut absorption in order to meet increased metabolic demands of this mineral, as many of the enzymes of glycolysis and citric acid cycle require magnesium as a cofactor. The serum concentration of sodium' showed an increasing tendency whereas that of potassium showed a decreasing tendency from third to ninth month of pregnancy. However the values of sodium encountered during third to sixth month and that of potassium from third to eighth month of pregnancy were lower than pre conception values which might be due to an increased permeation of these electrolytes into the uterus and fmally drainage into the fetoplacentary unit. The serum sodium and potassium level reached highest values during ninth month of pregnancy which further decreased during first month of lactation due to an increased transfer of these electrolytes into milk .. An increasing trend was observed for serum levels of iron and copper from third to fifth month of pregnancy. The increased level of serum iron during the first half of pregnancy might be due to an increased absorption from the gastrointestinal tract. It was observed that both these minerals reach their peak serum level by fifth month of pregnancy and towards late pregnancy the iron level decreased which might be either due to its incorporation into the fetus or an increase in plasma volume so that haemoglobin content of blood also got apparently decreased. Serum copper concentration which decreased during the period of sixth to eighth month of pregnancy might be due to an increased blood volume and further increase in serum copper level during the ninth month of pregnancy might be due to the increase in estrogen level during that period as estrogen induce denovo synthesis of ceruloplasmin and thereby increased serum copper value during this period. During the first month of postpartum, serum iron level was found decreased while copper concentration increased. As far as serum zinc levels was concerned it was noticed that throughout the pregnancy its level increased when compared to control value. This could be due to an increased concentration of several enzymes involved in steroidgenesis and carbonic anhydrase, a zinc containing enzyme encountered during pregnancy. Eventhough serum zinc content exhibited a decreasing trend from third to eighth month of gestation, eventually it got increased during ninth month which might be due to higher levels of circulating prostaglandins during this period as zinc is required for their transport. A further increase in serum zinc level was noticed during first month of lactation.
Open Access
Influence of coconut oil and sunflower oil on plasma and liver lipid profile and production performance in Japanese quail (Coturrix coturnix japonica)
(Department of Physiology and Biochemistry, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 1997) Mini, K P; KAU; Philomina, P T
The role of dietary factors in the genesis and development of atherosclerosis has been associated with elevated serum cholesterol levels, both in man and animals. Coconut oil has been a dietary component for keralites from time immemorial. There are several reports implicating coconut oil (a saturated fat) as one of the major factors involved in the production of increased blood cholesterol level leading to the increased incidence of cardio vascular disease (CVD) in human beings and animals. Nosystematic investigation has been carried out so far to study how increasing unsaturation of the oil affects lipid metabolism in warding off atherosclerosis. In addition to the chain length of fatty acids their relative position in the triglyceride molecule appears to affect their potency for atherogenicity. Gingelly oil is commonly used as one of the energy source in poultry feed and sunflower oil is also gaining popularity now a days, since many reports indicated that feeding of unsaturated fat decreased the cholesterol content in the body. Hence it was thought worthwhile to study the influence of these three oils on the levels of total lipid, triglyceride, total cholesterol and phospholipid in plasma and liver, the concentration of HDL – cholesterol and (VLDL + LDL) – cholesterol in plasma, weight of the liver and the level of total cholesterol in egg yolk. The production performance under these dietary oils was also assessed in Japanese quails by recording the egg production, egg weight and egg mass, feed consumption, body weight and feed efficiency. A total number of 72 (36 males and 36 females), four –week old Japanese quails of the same strain (egg type) and hatch were procured from the Kerala Agricultural University Poultry Farm, Mannuthy and divided into three main groups (12 males and 12 females in each main group viz. G1,GII, GIII) and then subdivided to 12 males and 12 females as M-I, M-II and M-III (males) and F-I, F-II and F-III (females).The birds were provided grower ration upto sixth week of age and then adult ration, from the sixth to the 10th week of age in males and 16th week of age in females. The standard ration was incorporated with the different dietary oils at 2 percent level viz. GI (MI and F-I) with gingelley oil, GII (MII and F-II) with coconut oil and GIII (MIII and F-III) with sunflower oil. Feed consumption, egg production and egg weight were recorded daily and body weight recorded weekly. The eggs from the three groups (F-I, F-II and F-III) were collected on the last day of 14th, 15th and 16th week of age, weighed and stored at 40c for biochemical analyses. The male birds were sacrificed at the 10th week of age and females at the 16th week of age. The weight of the liver noted and plasma and liver stored at – 200C for analysis. Total lipid, triglyceride, total cholesterol, HDL – cholesterol (VLDL + LDL) Cholesterol and phospholipid in plasma of male and female Japanese quails were not significantly different among the groups, since the normal level (2%) of oils used in the present study was not able to exert any significant influence on the lipid metabolism to quails. The total lipid content in the liver in male quails was not significantly different among the groups. In the female quails the total lipid content in liver of gingelley oil fed group (F-I) was significantly higher than that of coconut oil fed (F-II) and sunflower oil fed (F-III) groups. Lower triglyceride lipase activity in coconut oil and sunflower oil fed groups, which causes decreased break down of triglyceride in adipose tissue and lower transportation of fatty acids to liver in these two groups. Irrespective of sex the triglyceride and total cholesterol content in liver were not significantly different among the groups. The liver phospholipid content in male quails of gingelley oil fed group (MI) was significantly higher than that of sunflower oil fed group (MIII). Sunfloweroil (unsaturated fatty acids) causes enhanced faecal excretion of free fatty acids. The total lipid, triglyceride, (VLDL + LDL) – cholesterol and phospholipid in plasma were significantly higher in adult female quails compared to male in all the groups. In the laying bird lipids are sysnthesised in the liver and transported to the ovary in the form of lipoproteins. This is the reason for higher total lipid, triglyceride and phospholipid in plasma of laying hen (VLDL + LDL) – cholesterol content was also higher in the female quails since they are the transport form of cholesterol from liver to the ovary. The total cholesterol and HDL – cholesterol were higher in male quails compared to females, since the cholesterol is not eliminated through the egg yolk and are mainly found along with the HDL fraction in males unlike females. The total lipid, triglyceride and total cholesterol content in liver of female quails were significantly higher than that of male quails. There was higher lipid synthesis in the liver of female quails under the influence of oestrogen. There was no significant difference in the liver phospholipid content between male and female quails . No significant difference in the weight of the liver among the groups in both male and female Japanese quails could be noticed. However, weight of the liver in females was significantly higher than the males in each group. There was no significant difference in the total lipid and total cholesterol content in egg yolk among the groups, at the 14th, 15th and 16th week of age. This was because the total lipid and total cholesterol content in the egg yolk has to be maintained at a constant level in order to create a favourable environment for the development of the embryo. Female quails attained sexual maturity earlier at the end of fifth week (38 to 41 days of age). Egg production started on the 38th day in groups F-II and F-III while it was on the 41st day in group F-I. The egg production was lower in gingelley oil fed group (F-I) than coconut oil fed group (F-II) may be due to lower mineral absorption in gingelley oil fed group. The egg weight was higher in sunflower oil fed group (F-III) than coconut oil fed group (F-II) since sunflower oil in the diet causes higher protein retention. The egg mass was not significantly different among the groups. However, the egg weight and egg mass significantly increased with age. There was no significant difference in feed intake among the groups in both male and female Japanese quails as the caloric value of the feeds were the same. Female quails had higher feed intake than males due to their higher growth rate. The body weight of the male quails was not significantly different among the groups. The body weight in gingelley oil fed group was the lowest among the female quails during most part of the experimental period, since there is lower mineralization of bones in that group. The body weight of female quails in the three groups was significantly higher than that of males. Feed efficiency was not different among the groups in male Japanese quails. Among the female Japanese quails coconut oil (F-II) and sunflower oil (F-III) fed groups had better feed efficiency than gingelley oil fed group (F-I), lower rate of absorption of minerals in gingelley oil fed group (F-I) may the reason for the lowest feed efficiency and body weight. In order to arrive at a conclusion as to which of the particular oil is ideal for health and for better production performance in Japanese quails, higher levels of oils are to be incorporated and a more detailed study is required.

Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur

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