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Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur
The history of agricultural education in Kerala can be traced back to the year 1896 when a scheme was evolved in the erstwhile Travancore State to train a few young men in scientific agriculture at the Demonstration Farm, Karamana, Thiruvananthapuram, presently, the Cropping Systems Research Centre under Kerala Agricultural University. Agriculture was introduced as an optional subject in the middle school classes in the State in 1922 when an Agricultural Middle School was started at Aluva, Ernakulam District. The popularity and usefulness of this school led to the starting of similar institutions at Kottarakkara and Konni in 1928 and 1931 respectively.
Agriculture was later introduced as an optional subject for Intermediate Course in 1953. In 1955, the erstwhile Government of Travancore-Cochin started the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, Thiruvananthapuram and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences at Mannuthy, Thrissur for imparting higher education in agricultural and veterinary sciences, respectively. These institutions were brought under the direct administrative control of the Department of Agriculture and the Department of Animal Husbandry, respectively. With the formation of Kerala State in 1956, these two colleges were affiliated to the University of Kerala. The post-graduate programmes leading to M.Sc. (Ag), M.V.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees were started in 1961, 1962 and 1965 respectively.
On the recommendation of the Second National Education Commission (1964-66) headed by Dr. D.S. Kothari, the then Chairman of the University Grants Commission, one Agricultural University in each State was established. The State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) were established in India as an integral part of the National Agricultural Research System to give the much needed impetus to Agriculture Education and Research in the Country. As a result the Kerala Agricultural University (KAU) was established on 24th February 1971 by virtue of the Act 33 of 1971 and started functioning on 1st February 1972. The Kerala Agricultural University is the 15th in the series of the SAUs.
In accordance with the provisions of KAU Act of 1971, the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, were brought under the Kerala Agricultural University. In addition, twenty one agricultural and animal husbandry research stations were also transferred to the KAU for taking up research and extension programmes on various crops, animals, birds, etc.
During 2011, Kerala Agricultural University was trifurcated into Kerala Veterinary and Animal Sciences University (KVASU), Kerala University of Fisheries and Ocean Studies (KUFOS) and Kerala Agricultural University (KAU).
Now the University has seven colleges (four Agriculture, one Agricultural Engineering, one Forestry, one Co-operation Banking & Management), six RARSs, seven KVKs, 15 Research Stations and 16 Research and Extension Units under the faculties of Agriculture, Agricultural Engineering and Forestry. In addition, one Academy on Climate Change Adaptation and one Institute of Agricultural Technology offering M.Sc. (Integrated) Climate Change Adaptation and Diploma in Agricultural Sciences respectively are also functioning in Kerala Agricultural University.
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ThesisItem Open Access Deterioration of oil cake by fungi(Department of Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 1989) Naseema, A; KAU; Wilson, K IFungi causing deterioration of coconut, groundnut and sesamum oil cakes were studied. ficremonium implicatum, Asperdllus aculeatus, A. flavus, A. fumigatus, A. nlaer, A. terreus, A. versicolor, Bipolaris hawaiiensis, Curvularia clavata, Monascus ruber, Penicillium aurantioqriseum, P. Pinophilum, Pestalotiopsis palmarum, Rhizomucor £usillus and Ehizopus stolonifer were obtained from coconut oil cake. Aspergillus flavus, A. niaer, A. terreus, A. versicolor, Gliocladium sp. Penicillium pinophilum, RhizoEUS or^zae and Rhizopus stolonifer were noticed in groundnut and Aspergillus candidus, A. flavus, A. fumigatus, A. nlaer, A. tamarii, A. terreus, Curvularia clavata, Eurotium. chevalieri, F"sarium pallidoroseum, Monascus ruber, Fenicilliuiu pinophilum, Pestalotiopsls palmarum and Rhizopus or^zae in sesamum oil cake. Of these, Acremonium implicatum, Aspergillus aculeatus, A. caeslellus, A. .f"-igatus, Bipolaris hawaiiensis, Curvularia clavata, Monascus ru^, Penicillium anrantlogriseum, P. pinophilum, Pestalotiopsls palmarum and Rhizomucor pusillus from coconut oil cake, Aspergillus versicolor, Gliocladium sp., Penicillium pinophilum, Rhizopus oryzae and R. stolonifer from groundnut and Aspergillus candidus, A. fumigatus, A. tamarli, A. terreus, Curvularia clavata, Eurotium chevalieri, Fusarium pallidoroseum,Monascus ruber, Penicillium pinophilum, Pestalotiopsis palmarum and Rhizopus oryzae from sesamum oil cake have not been reported earlier. * Aspergillus flavus and A. niger were isolated from all the samples of groundnut and sesamum oil cakes. In coconut oil cake, these two fungi were present in 88.89 and 77.78 per cent of the samples. A. terreus was isolated from 66.67 per cent of groundnut and 55. 56 per cent of coconut and sesamum oil cake samples. Penicillium pinophilum was obtained from 66.67 per cent of groundnut, 44.44 per cent of sesamum and 27.78 per cent of coconut oil cake samples. Wide variation was noticed in the population of fungi present in the oil cakes collected from different regions during different periods of the year. Oil cakes collected during June-July had the highest population, of fungi. The central and the northern regions recorded higher population of fungi than the southern region. Positive and significant correlation could be obtained between weather parameters and population of fungi in different oil cakes. Maximum correlation was noticed in relation to total rainfall. Qood mycelial growth of fungi was obtained in all the oil cakes incubated at 27, 29 and 32°C. Maximum mycelial growth was noticed at 100 per cent relative humidity. This was followed by 96.1 per cent and 92.9 per cent in the descending order. The oil content of the oil cakes was considerably reduced due to the growth of all the fungi tested individually and in combination. Maximum reduction v/as noticed due to the growth of Pestalotiopsis palmarum in coconut oil cake, Rhizopus stolonifer in groundnut and Fusarium pallidorosem in sesamum oil cake. In the case of combinations, Aspergillus flavus, A. niger and Penicillium pinophilum together caused maximum reduction in oil content of coconut oil cake. In groundnut, combined growth of A. flavus, A. niger and A. terreus caused maximum reduction in oil whereas, A. niger and P. pinophilum together effected maximum reduction of oil in sesamum oil cake. Oil cakes inoculated with different fungi showed considerable reduction in total carbohydrates, crude protein, free amino nitrogen, crude fibre and ash to the extent of 6.11 to 76.95 , 4 . 28 to 68.03, 14.91 to 92.52, 1.25 to 92.55 and 0.17 to 65.16 per cent respectively. In the case of mineral nutrients like phosphorus, potassium, magnesium. calcium, copper and iron reduction ranging from 15.07 to 75.54, 23.13 to 94.41, 10.89 to 63.37, 28.78 to 90.20, 52.52 to 97.12 and 0.32 to 60.77 per cent respectively was noticed. Fourteen out of 2 0 isolates of Aspergillus flavus produced aflatoxins B^, and G2 in culture medium with maximum quantities being 1210, 1040 and 151 ppb respectively by the isolates from coconut oil cake. Eight out of 19 isolates of A. niger elaborated upto 222 ppb by the isolate from sesamum oil cake. When grown on the respective host material, A. flavus isolates from coconut oil cake produced maximum quantity of B^^, B^ and being 1517, 1092 and 272 ppb respectively. A. niger isolate from coconut oil cake produced B^^ upto 419 ppb. oil cakes treated with calcium propionate (0.6 per cent, w/w) were free from fungus growth throughout the period (180 days) of observation and showed minimum number of fungal propagules whereas, those kept as control had higher population of fungi than the treated ones, at all period.of observation. Oil cakes stored in polythene lined gunny bags had the least population of fungi, whereas those stored in ordinary gunny bag had very high population of fungi. These results revealed that fungal deterioration and spoilage of oil cakes could be prevented or reduced to the minimum by treatment with 0.6 per cent calcium propionate- and by using polythene lined gunny bags for storage arid transport.ThesisItem Open Access Fungal diseases of selected medicinal plants of Kerala(Department of Plant Pathology, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 1991) Sukumara, Varma A; KAU; ; Abi, CheeranThesisItem Open Access Study of bacterial leaf spot of betel vine- biochemical changes and control(Department of Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 1986) Koshi, Abraham; KAU; James, MathewThe bacterial leaf spot is one of the most serious diseases of betel vine in Kerala. The bacterium is one of the most serious disease of betal vine. Confidering the seriouness of the disease , studies were undertaken on the different aspects of the disease and to find out a suitable control /management practice.ThesisItem Open Access Symbiosis of rhizobium and VA mycorrhiza in subabul(Department of Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 1989) Rajendran Pillai, M V; KAU; Sasi Kumar NairA survey was conducted at 17 locations in four districts of Kerala for natural nodulation and VA mycorrhizal infection in subabul. The survey revealed that natural nodulation and VA mycorrhizal infection were poor compared to inoculated plants. When all the 17 isolates of rhizobia and four cultures of VA mycorrhizal fungus were tested for effectiveness, the rhizobial isolate R8 and V AM fungus M2 were emerged as most efficient rhizobial and mycorrhizal cultures respectively. An in vitro study conducted revealed that in an acid PH of 6, the rhizobial isolate R8 survived better than other cultures. At pH 8, growth of another isolate R5 was found maximum. However, in an in vivo study, there was not much significance for the soil pH ranging from 6 to 7.1 in influencing various biometric parameters of subabul. In both the pH of 6 and 7.1, the performance of rhizobial isolate R5 and mycorrhizal culture M2 was best. Serological studies revealed that the exotic strains R18 R20 and and isolate from Mimosa indica had serological similarities with the best selected local isolate R8. Fine structure studies of nodules clearly showed the morphological differences between the uninfected nodular tissues and the infected central nodular tissue. The rhizobial infection transformed the normal cells into irregularly shaped cells within which numerous rhizobial cells were visible. In another observation, it was found that subabul plants starts to form nodules only from 15 days of sowing. There- after, the nodule number increased steadily attaining the peak at 70 days of growth and then remained more or less steady. Among various methods of inoculation of the microsymbionts tested, inoculation of both the microsymbionts at the time of sowing in polybag was found good for the better establishment of the plants in the field. In a field study, it was found that inoculation of the local isolate of Rhizobium R8 and mycorrhizal fungus M2 had great influence in increasing all the growth parameters. Standard mycorrhizal culture and local isolate performed equally well. Maximum forage yield was obtained when plants were inoculated with the selected local rhizobial isolate R8 and mycorrhizal fungus M2. Maximum mycorrhizal infection was also seen in the same treatment. Dual inoculation also had significant influence in increasing the leaf protein content. An important observation was that both rhizobial and mycorrhizal inoculation reduced the mimosine content of leaves. However, fertilizer nitrogen increased mimosine content. In short, dual inoculation by Rhizobium and VA mycorrhiza was found necessary for better establishment, growth and low mimosine content of subabul.ThesisItem Open Access Ochratoxicosis in the goat(Department of Pathology, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 1983) Maryamma, K I; KAU; Krishnan Nair, MAn experimental study was carried out to delineate the pathological effects of ochratoxin in goats. A comparative assessment of ochratoxin production by A. ochraceus and A. sulphureus on what and rice under static and shake cultures was also made. A. ochraceus was found to be a better toxin producing strain in both substrates under static and shake cultures systems and wheat was a better substrate than rice. Toxicity studies were conducted in Sannen – Malabari cross-bred goats of 1 to 3 months age. Purified ochratoxin produced in the laboratory was administered by oral, intra-peritoneal and intravenous routes. The different dose levels adopted were 2.5 mg/kg body weight, 1 mg/kg body weight and 0.5 mg/kg body weight. The synergistic effect of ochratoxin and aflatoxin in goats was studied by adminstering the crystalline toxins simultaneously (Makor Chemicals, Israel) by itraperitoneal route. The parameters of study were: clinical signs, haematological and biochemical alterations, pathological changes in urine, and macroscopic, microscopic and ultra-structural alterations in organs. Varying degree of clinocopathological changes were noticed in the test animals. The animals became weak and listless and in general there was reduction of total erythrocyte count, PCV, haemoglobin and lymphocyte count. Serum protein level was lowered while BUN and creatinine and blood coagulation time were high. There was rise in ALP, SGOT and SGPT in some of the test animals. The changes and degree of variation depended on the dose, total quantity and rate of administration of the toxin and duration of the experiment. More severe alterations were noticed when ochratoxin and aflatoxin were administered simultaneously. Important changes in the urine were lowering of pH, albuminurea and presence of epithelial cells and casts. Pathological changes varied in severity in different organs and were observed in the following descending order: kidney, liver, intestines, stomach, lymph nodes, spleen, thymus, genital organs, endocrines. In the kidneys, the order of intensity of pathological alterations was: proximal convoluted tubules, Henle’s loop, distal convoluted tubule, glomeruli, collecting tubules. Retrogressive changes of different degree and necrosis of the lining epithelial cells of tubules and endothelium and epithelium of glomeruli were the important lesions. Changes in glomeruli and Bowman’s capsule noticed in the higher dose group included shrinkage of glomeruli and presence of proteinaceous material in the capsular space. Eosinophilic granular casts and PAS positive bodies were present in the lumen of tubules. The necrobiotic renal changes were more intense when orchatoxin and aflatoxin were administered simultaneously. Hepatic lesions were mainly fatty infiltration, necrosis of hepatocytes and haemorrhage. The changes were most severe in combined toxicity. Mallory bodies and mild biliary hyperplasia were noticed in a few sections. Necrosis and subsequent depletion of lymphocytes wee the lesions in lymph nodes, spleen and thymus in some test animals. Degenerative changes were also noticed in testis, ovary, pituitary, adrenals and pancreas in experimental groups. In the combined toxicity group the pathological effect was more intense. At the ultra-structural level, the hepatcytes as well as the epithelial cells in the kidney showed severe changes. The cell organelles were either completely damaged or showed partial configurational alterations. Mitochondria showed changed in the density of matrix as well as disorientation and destruction of the limiting membranes and cristae. Cytolysosomes incorporating damaged cell organelles were abundant. Disaggregation of ribosomes and fragmentation of ER were noticed. In the glomerulus, there was destruction of the basement membrane and disruption of the regular arrangement of the foot processes of podocytes. In the cytoplasm of hepatocytes, Mallory bodies and lipid droplets were present. Varying degree of nuclear changes like clumping, condensation and disappearance of chromatin and fragmentation of nucleolus and nuclear membrane were observed. Changes occurred in the tight junctions of epithelial cells of bile ducts. Pathological alterations were more pronounced when ochratoxin was administered by the pwerenteral route. Oral administration of toxin also effected structural alterations which indicated that some fraction of ochratoxin escaped degradation in the rumen. From this study it became evident that aflatoxin potentiated the effect of ochratoxin. The structural damage to the cells might be due to the inhibition of oxidative enzymes which is reflected by the extensive ultra- structural alteration observed in the mitochondria and RER. Biochemical changes like high BUN and creatinine were evidently due to necrobiotic changes in the kidney. Interference in the synthesis of proteins due to damage of hepatic cells and escape of protein molecules due to alteration in the podocyte foot processes and basement membranes may account for the reduced serum protein levels. The nature of organellar destruction and configurational changes in the cells indicate the toxic potency of the mycotoxin on the biological system.ThesisItem Open Access Studies on purple top roll (PTR) of potato in Karnataka(Department of Plant Pathology, University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore, 1983) Sreedharan, A; KAU; Reddy, H R1. Survey for the incidence of potato purple top roll revealed that the disease was present in Bangalore, Belgaum, Dharwad, Hassan and Kolar districts of Karnataka. The average percentage of incidence varied from 8.94 to 50.07. The survey also indicated that there was low incidence of the disease in summer and high incidence in kharif and rabi. 2. The pathogen was transmissible by wedge, side and core grafting. 3. The disease was transmitted through dodder, Cuscuta chinensis Lam. 4. The disease was not transmissible through sap and aphids Myzus persicae Sulz. And Aphis gossypil Glov. 5. The etiological agent was transmitted by the leafhopper, Orosius albicinctus Distant and not by Hishimonus phycitis Distant. 6. The vector, O. albicinctus could acquire the pathogen in two hr and inoculate to healthy plants in 30 min. The percentage of active transmission was 35 – 40 and the minimum incubation period in the plant was between 20 and 25 days. Maximum percentage of transmission was obtained on 40th day after inoculation. 7. Characteristic symptoms of the disease was inward rolling of basal parts of top leaflets, purple/pink pigmentation, smalling of leaves, excessive proliferation of axillary buds, erect appearance, production of purple coloured, aerial tubers and stunting and dwarfing of plants. 8. The etiological agent infected tomato, tree tomato, Datura stramonium and D. metel by grafting. 9. The pattern of spread of the disease in the field was from external source in the beginning and later the spread was within. 10. The vector population was correlated with the disease incidence in the field. The increase in the incidence of the disease followed the increase in the vector population. 11. The leafhopper vector, O. albicinctus Distant was high in the months from late June to December and low from January to early June. 12. The high population of leafhoppers was correlated with low temperature and high humidity and low population was correlated with high temperature and low humidity. 13. The disease appeared 40 days after planting in the field and then it gradually increased reaching the peak by 90th day. 14. The pathogen was transmitted through tubers for two successive generations but to a lower percentage in the second generation. 15. Of the 36 cultivars/varieties of potato tested under field conditions, none were found to be resistant, However, the vars. JF 542, JF 4612, JG 676, JG 900, JC 750 and JE 812 had less than five per cent infection. Kufri Chandramukhi and Kufri Jyoti were highly susceptible having 48.3 and 47.6 per cent incidence, respectively. The highest average incidence of PTR in these cultivars in farmer’s fields was 35.85 and 26.03 per cent, respectively. 16. There was considerable loss in yield in many cvs. Viz., JC 750, BS/F 100, JC 182 and EM/F 2120. 17. The weight of tubers produced by the infected plants was always less than the tubers obtained from the adjacent healthy plants. The infected plants produced more number of smaller tubers which aggregated close to the main stem attached on short stolons. 18. Complete remission was obtained at 500, 1000 and 2000 ppm, incomplete remission at 100 and 250 ppm and no remission at 50 ppm of tetracycline given alternatively for 20 days.ThesisItem Open Access Improvement on the techniques for the cultivation and preservation of tropical species of mushrooms(Department of Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 1994) Balakrishnan, B; KAU; Chandrasekharan Nair, MIntensive collections made from certain selected areas of Kerala yielded a total of eight species of Pleurotus, one species each of Volvariella and Tricholoma, namely V. esculenta and T. lobayense respectively from the native flora. Various species collected were identified and based on the preliminary observations made on their adaptability for large scale cultivation, among the Pleurotus two species have been selected for detailed study along with the other standard cultures procured from various mushroom research centres of the country. The native isolate of T. lobayense in the present study is the first record of the species from Kerala. Detailed studies have been done on various aspects of cultivation of pleurotus spp. With a view to improve the already known technologies so as to suit the conditions of Kerala. The two native species of pleurotus selected have been domesticated and compared with other standard cultures on their performance. Based on the observations made in the seasonal influence, yield and market qualities the species most suited for large scale cultivation in Kerala have been identified. Alternative local substrates for cultivation of oyster mushrooms have been identified and their processing technology standardized. Effective nutritional supplements for increased yield, method for speedy induction of sporocarp, after care method for the once harvested beds for further flushes, effective method for cultivation etc. have been worked out for large scale cultivation of Pleurotus spp. In Kerala. Commonly available low cost substrates in spawn production have been identified and their technologies standardized. Influence of light on spawn growth, influence of storing environment on growth and shelf life of spawn etc. have been studied. Technology for preparation of an instant liquid spawn developed and also a modified method for speedy and low cost production of spawn using polypropylene cover as the container has been standardized. The effect of coconut milk in blending culture media for enhanced growth of various Pleurotus spp. and the effect of coconut milk in their biomass production have been proved. In the strain improvement programme, a substrate influenced mutant of Pleurotus sajor-caju for better yield, a resistant/tolerant strain against the most destructive weed mould Trichoderma viride and an interstock hybrid with desirable traits have been developed. Type of pests and their control etc. have been worked out. The effect of chemical pasteurization of the substrates on checking the weed mould infestation during spawn run and the use of lime powder for spot treatment of beds in the management of T. viride have been proved. Post harvest technology for preservation of both raw and dehydrated forms of mushrooms has been standardized. The native strains of other tropical mushrooms locally collected namely V. esculenta and T. lobayense have been identified based on the detailed description of the same. The performance of the native strain, V. esculenta under cultivation has been compared with that of the standard species, V. volvacea and a technique for cultivation of T. lobayense has been standardized for first time in this part of the country.ThesisItem Open Access Strain variation in Rhizoctonia solani Kuhn [Thanatephorus cucumeris (Frank) Donk] causing sheath blight of rice(Department of Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 1986) Vijayan, M; KAU; Chandrasekharan Nair, NSymptoms of sheath blight disease usually develop towards the tillering stage of the rice crop. Discolouration initially appearing on the sheath at or above the water level develop into ellipsoidal lesions. The lesions are light greenish gray in colour with dark brown margin. As the disease progress the lesions coalesce and become oblong to irregular in shape. In severe condition the lesions encircle the culm and cause rotting of the sheath. The disease then spreads to the leaves and such plants are killed. Sclerotia and silvery threads of the fungal mycelium appear on the affected regions under high humid conition. The casual organism was Isolated and identified as Rhizoctonia solani Kuhn. The hyphae branched near the distal septus with a costriction at the branch base. Hyphae were multinucleate and in culture showed brown pigmentation. Nature sclerotia were subglobose with rough regular surface.ThesisItem Open Access Effect of application of plant protection chemicals on the survival of Rhizoctonia solani Kuhn(Department of Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 1986) Lulu Das; KAU; Chandrasekharan Nair, MIn Kerala, the incidence of sheath blight of rice is endemic causing great economic loss. The present investigation was undertaken to make a critical assessment of the efficacy of various palnt protection chemicals, viz., fungicides, insecticides and herbicides on the incidence and intensity of sheath blight of rice and on the survival of the pathogen. The organism was isolated from naturally infected rice fields and its pathogenicity proved. Studies on the viability of sclerotia revealed that they sclerotia remained viable upto 210 days in all the different types of soils namely sandy, clayey and loamy. The organism could survive on straw bits upto 180th ady only.