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Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur
The history of agricultural education in Kerala can be traced back to the year 1896 when a scheme was evolved in the erstwhile Travancore State to train a few young men in scientific agriculture at the Demonstration Farm, Karamana, Thiruvananthapuram, presently, the Cropping Systems Research Centre under Kerala Agricultural University. Agriculture was introduced as an optional subject in the middle school classes in the State in 1922 when an Agricultural Middle School was started at Aluva, Ernakulam District. The popularity and usefulness of this school led to the starting of similar institutions at Kottarakkara and Konni in 1928 and 1931 respectively.
Agriculture was later introduced as an optional subject for Intermediate Course in 1953. In 1955, the erstwhile Government of Travancore-Cochin started the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, Thiruvananthapuram and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences at Mannuthy, Thrissur for imparting higher education in agricultural and veterinary sciences, respectively. These institutions were brought under the direct administrative control of the Department of Agriculture and the Department of Animal Husbandry, respectively. With the formation of Kerala State in 1956, these two colleges were affiliated to the University of Kerala. The post-graduate programmes leading to M.Sc. (Ag), M.V.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees were started in 1961, 1962 and 1965 respectively.
On the recommendation of the Second National Education Commission (1964-66) headed by Dr. D.S. Kothari, the then Chairman of the University Grants Commission, one Agricultural University in each State was established. The State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) were established in India as an integral part of the National Agricultural Research System to give the much needed impetus to Agriculture Education and Research in the Country. As a result the Kerala Agricultural University (KAU) was established on 24th February 1971 by virtue of the Act 33 of 1971 and started functioning on 1st February 1972. The Kerala Agricultural University is the 15th in the series of the SAUs.
In accordance with the provisions of KAU Act of 1971, the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, were brought under the Kerala Agricultural University. In addition, twenty one agricultural and animal husbandry research stations were also transferred to the KAU for taking up research and extension programmes on various crops, animals, birds, etc.
During 2011, Kerala Agricultural University was trifurcated into Kerala Veterinary and Animal Sciences University (KVASU), Kerala University of Fisheries and Ocean Studies (KUFOS) and Kerala Agricultural University (KAU).
Now the University has seven colleges (four Agriculture, one Agricultural Engineering, one Forestry, one Co-operation Banking & Management), six RARSs, seven KVKs, 15 Research Stations and 16 Research and Extension Units under the faculties of Agriculture, Agricultural Engineering and Forestry. In addition, one Academy on Climate Change Adaptation and one Institute of Agricultural Technology offering M.Sc. (Integrated) Climate Change Adaptation and Diploma in Agricultural Sciences respectively are also functioning in Kerala Agricultural University.
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ThesisItem Open Access Immunogenicity of an indigenous isolate of newcastle disease virus and Its usefulness as a vaccine strain(Department of microbiology, College of veterinary and animal sciences, Mannuthy, 1983) Murugan, M R; KAU; Suloohana, SThe newly isolated mesogenic strain of Newcastle disease virus (NT) from an ailing mynah was studied in detail with particular reference to its biological characteristics, pathogenicity and immunogenicity. The results of various studies were compared with that of Komorov strain, a known mesogenic strain. The titer attained in developing chick embryos, mean death time of inoculated chick embryos at terminal dilutions, neuropathogenicity index in day old chicks and intravenous pathogenicity index were 109.5 /0.2 ml, 87 hours 0.63 and 0.00 respectively for the MT strain. The above values in order were 1010.5/0.2 ML, 76.5 hours, 1.16 and 0.000 for the Komorov strain. The infectivity of MT strain was labile at 560C for 10 minutes and the haemagglutinin was completely lost within five minutes. On the other hand the infectivity and haemagglutinin of K strain were comparatively resistant. Strain MT was pathogenic to day old chicks in which 26.6% mortality was noticed. In recovered chicks sufficient HI antibodies were seen and all of them withstood challenge. Although comparable results were obtained for Komarov strain, it was less pathogenic to day old chicks. Though 23.3% of chicks manifested clinical symptom only 3.3% died and the remaining birds recovered. In three weeks old chicks MT and K strain were found to be nonpathogenic either by S/C or oculonasal route. The inoculated chicks were immune when challenged six weeks later. Even in six weeks old chicks having no base immunity no post-inoculation reactions could be detected. All the chicks showed a rise in antibody titer reaching the peak level by the end of the third week and were resistant to challenge after six weeks. In chicks aged six weeks having a base immunity with strain were also free from any post infection reaction either by I/M or S/C route or inoculation. Chicks in both the groups produced HI antibodies and was always higher in those received infection by I/M route. The peak titers were obtained at the end of the third week and then declined. Though the titers were low by the end of the 6th week all the chicks were resistant to ND when exposed to a virulent virus. 2.9% of the chicks that received K strain by I/M route showed post inoculation reaction and died of ND. The remaining chicks and those in the S/C group behaved the same way as those received NT strain. Though the antibody response of chicken to MT and K were not statistically significant in all the three experiments, MWU test revealed that MT has a significantly higher immunogenic effect than K as the former always had a higher means than the latter. The ability to infect in contact chicks was also investigated. Strain MT was less efficient in this property giving only 25% to 28% transmission. On the other hand K strain revealed significantly higher transmissibility as it could spread to 62.5 to 75% of the inoculated in contact chicks. The mesogenic strain MT is quite safe in chicks of three weeks of age and above. It is also a good immunogen producing HI antibodies which protected the chicks from challenge even after six weeks. However the strain can be recommended as a vaccine strain only after further field trials and its effects on egg production are worked out.ThesisItem Open Access Comparison of serological tests for the detection of leptospira antibodies in immunised animals(Department of microbiology, College of veterinary and animal sciences, Mannuthy, 1980) Ravikumaran Nair, R; KAU; Abdulla, P KLeptospirosis is a widespread disease of man and animals and is of considerable economic importance besides being a public health problem. The leptospira infection in man and animals may be confirmed either by isolation of the organisms or by detection of specific antibodies in the serum and tissues of infected animals. Isolation of Leptospira is time consuming and beyond the scope of many diagnostic laboratories. In the present study the sensitivity of passive haemagglutination test was compared with the established microscopic agglutination test utilizing rabbit hyperimmune serum as the source of antibody. Leptospira serotypes were grown in Korthof’s medium enriched with 10% haemolysed rabbit serum. By 7 – 10 days satisfactory concentration of the organisms was obtained and was used for MA test. Passive haemagglutination test was carried out employing ethanol extracted antigen from concentrated leptospiral cultures. The PHA test was carried out after determining the optimum dilution of antigen required to sensitize sheep erythrocytes. Hyper immune sera to both serotypes were raised in rabbits by a series of intravenous inoculations. Serum samples for antibody titration was collected at weekly intervals from seven days following the first injection till the 49th day. Antibody titration by MA and PHA tests have shown that all the three animals inoculated with L. autumnalis had a uniform titre of 1:400 on the seventh day whereas the other three animals inoculated with L. pyrogenes showed a low titre of 1:100 by MA test. The PHA titre of both the groups remained the same ie 1:5. The maximum titre of 1:28000 for L. autumnalis was attained on the 21st day and remained unchanged until 35th day. The maximum PHA titre was attained only on 35th day (1:160). The rabbits inoculated with L. pyrogenes showed a maximum titre of 1:3200 by MA and 1:80 by PHA. The results obtained tend to show that PHA titres after reaching the maximum level remained detectable for longer period when compared to MA titres. Erythrocyte sensitizing substance from both the serotypes and the sera samples collected periodically from immunized rabbits were preserved at – 200 C at varying length of time upto three months. There was no deterioration in the stability or potency of ESS or sera on storage.ThesisItem Open Access Immunoglobulins in ducks and role of bursa of fabricius in their production(Department of Microbiology, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 1990) Krishnan, Nair G; KAU; Sulochana, SA study was undertaken to determine the immunoglobulin profile of ducks and to delineate the role of bursa in their production. Among the four different methods of bursectonomy employed in the study, Cy was found to produce the maximum reduction in body weight compared to other treatments. Marked reduction in bursal weight was also produced by Cy compared to T and ABS groups, while in SBx group the bursa was absent in toto. Surgical bursactomy resulted in significant reduction in spleen size of both surgically bursactomised uninoculated and inoculated ducklings. Histopathological studies revealed that the bursal development was highly suppressed on treatment with Cy. The ABS and testosterone treatments also elicited suppressive effect on bursa, but to a comparatively milder extent. It was evident that bursa had a role in lymphoproliferative reactions of spleen, as indicated by the maximum suppressive effect on spleen by SBx group. Ammonium sulphate at 33% level was found to be ideal for fractionation of duck serum globulins. Two main elution peaks were obtained on subjecting ammonium sulphate precipitated globulins to sephadex G – 200 chromatography. Concentrated and rerun ascending fractions of first major peak yielded purified IgM while those of the second major peak yielded purified IgG. Comparing the three age groups of antigen inoculation in ducklings bursectomised by different methods, total protein levels lower than the control were observed only in SBxSt (groups 1 and 11) and SBxSt (groups 1 and 111). Bacterial agglutination test revealed that in all four groups of bursectomised ducklings, antibody titres far below those of controls were produced. In SRBC agglutination test, lowered antibody titres than the control were observed in groups 1 to 111 of SBx, Cy and T – treated and groups 11 and 111 of ABS treated birds. Group 1 ABS administered ducklings had identical titres as that of control at days 7 – 21 post – inoculation. Bursectomized uninoculated ducklings revealed higher IgM levels than age – matched controls at many of the weeks under study. In bursectomised ducklings administered SRBC, IgM values higher than control level were obtained in the following cases : in groups 1 and 11 of SBxSR and TSR; groups 11 and 111 of CySR; and groups 1 to 111 of ABSR. S. typhimurium inoculated bursectomised ducklings revealed in the following treatments, higher IgM levels than control; in SBxSt groups 1 and 11; CySt groups 1 to 111; TSt group 1; and in ABSt groups 11 and 111. Quantitation of IgG levels in bursectomised ducklings revealed lower than control levels in SBx, Cy and T groups at 1 – 4 weeks of age, while the levels were higher or lower or identical with that of control from week 5. In ABS group the level was lower at 1 – 2 weeks. In bursectomised ducklings administered SRBC, higher IgG levels than control were obtained in groups 11 and 111 of SBxSR, CySR, TSR and ABSR. In group 1, treated ducklings revealed either lower or identical IgG levels compared to age matched controls. S. typhimurium inoculated bursectomised ducklings had higher IgG levels compared to CSt in all three groups of inoculation. Bile of ducks was found to contain only IgM, as evidenced by immunoelecrophoretic and quantitation studies. The IgM level in bile of bursectomised ducklings was found to be lower than that of the control. Yolk of duck eggs contained both IgM and IgG. Significantly higher lymphocyte count between the control and treated groups under study was detected at 4th (in SBx and T) and 8th weeks (in Cy). At 7th week, SBx group had significantly lower lymphocyte count, compared to control. At the fourth week of age, SBx and T groups had significantly lowered heterophil counts, compared to control. SBx group showed significantly higher count than the control at the 7th week, while at the 8th week, Cy – treated birds had markedly lower count, compared to the control. Eosinophil counts in bursectomised ducklings were higher than in control, while the basophil and monocyte counts in control and treated groups were more or less the same. The results obtained from the present study revealed that, 1. Among the different methods of Bx employed Cy produced maximum reduction in body weight, while SBx resulted in total elimination of bursa and significant reduction of spleen size. 2. Bursa had a role in lymphoproliferative reaction of spleen. Cy – produced maximum suppressive effect in bursa while in spleen SBx caused maximum suppression. 3. Ammonium sulphate (33%) was ideal for separation of duck serum globulins. 4. Sephadex G – 200 gel filtration was suitable for purification of IgM and IgG of ducks. 5. Bursa was concerned only with specific antibody production. 6. Elevated IgM and IgG levels were produced in bursectomised birds by extra – bursal B cells. 7. Bile of ducks contained IgM, the concentration of which was lower than the control in bursectomised birds. 8. Egg yolk of ducks contained both IgM and IgG.ThesisItem Open Access Prevalence of yeast and yeast like fungi in bovine mastitis and their in vitro drug sensitivity(Department of Microbiology, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 1996) Sukumar, K; KAU; James, P CA total of 200 milk samples from clinical cases of bovine mastitis were culturally screened during a period of six months. Pathogenic fungal organisms could be isolated only from 26 samples. Out of this 26 positive samples, yeast and yeast like fungal organisms were isolated from 20 samples and mould from six cases. The major pathogen isolated were candida spp namely C. tropicalis, C. parapsilosis and C. guillermondi. The other organisms were Geotrichum candidum, Trichosporon cutaneum, Sacharomyces cerevisiae, Torulopsis spp and Rhodotorula rubra. The filamentous fungi isolated were Sepedonium spp, Aspergillus ochraceous group, Cladosporium carrionii, Penicillium spp and Trichophyton verrucosum. In majority of the cases yeast and yeast like fungi produced chronic mastitis in which hardness of udder and reduction in milk yield with watery milk containing flakes were noticed. In cases of mastitis where in mould was involved, chronic mastitis characterized by hardness of udder and reduction in milk yield with straw yellow coloured milk, viscid in consistency. Sensitivity pattern of the fungal isolates to the commonly employed antifungal chemotherapeutic agents like Amphotericin B, Clotrimazole, Fluconazole, Griseofuivin, Itraconazole, Ketocanazole, Nystin and Pimaricin (Natamycin) was elucidated. Among the above agents Clotrimazole and Itraconazole exhibited maximum inhibitory activity. All the isolates were found to be resistant to Griseofulvin. In vitro drug sensitivity pattern of fungal isolates employing the discs impregnated with essential oils of cinnamon, clove and lemon grass and alksloids of Cassia alata was studied. Cinnamon leaf oil possessed maximum antifungal activity and the extracts of Cassia alata failed to evince the ability to inhibit the growth of fungal isolates. The antifungal activity of plant extracts were compared with the commonly antifungal chemotherapeutic agents.ThesisItem Open Access Characterization of Campylobacter jejuni isolated from pigs and man(Department of Microbiology, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 1994) Raju, P V; KAU; Madhusoodanan Pillai, RTwenty six rectal swabs collected from piglets below two months of age with diarrhoea/enteritis when culturally screened yielded 11 isolates of Camplobacter jejuni. Thirty two rectal swabs from children below five years of age with diarrhoea/enteritis when processed for the isolation of etiological agent, resulted in the recovery of one strain of C. jejuni. Sonicated C. jejuni antigen prepared from the selected strains of C. jejuni from porcine and human origin were found suitable for sensitization of gluteraldehyde stabilized sheep RBC for serum antibody monitoring. The sonicated antigen retained its affinity to sheep RBC even after six months of storage at – 600 C. Gluteraldehyde stabilization was found to be a suitable method for the preservation of SRBC. Gluteraldehyde stabilized SRBC stored at 40 C upto a period of three months did not show any reduction in the sensitization property, as evidenced from the PHA titre. One hundred and fifty microliters of C. jejuni antigen whose protein concentration adjusted to 2 mg/ml was found to be the optimum level for sensitisation of a suspension made from three millilitres of packed SRBC. The optimum level of SAPA cells required in the seromonitoring of C. jejuni specific antibodies by SAPA – AMHA test was found to be 0.1 per cent. Cross titration assay employing homologous and heterologous antigens of C. jejuni and the hyperimmune sera indicated that there was antigenic relationship between porcine and human strains. The results also point to the probable prevalence of different antigenic components in varying proportions in different strains from various sources. In the present investigation, 50 serum samples from pigs were monitored for the presence of C. jejuni specific antibodies by PHA and SAPA – AMHA. PHA detected 48 per cent cases as positives compared to 54 per cent by SAPA – AMHA. Statistical analysis clearly indicated that SAPA – AMHA is superior to PHA in screening C. jejuni specific antibodies. The result of the present study indicated that SAPA – AMHA test could advantageously replace the conventional PHA for serological diagnosis of animal and human Campylobacteriosis. Efforts were also made in this study to find out the change in PHA titre with homologus and heterologous antigens employing sera before and after adsorption with unsensitised SRBC to remove the non specific antibodies. Statistical analysis of the results showed that for performing PHA, homologous antigen should be preferred over heterologous antigen and when homologous antigen were used, adsorption of sera with stabilized unsensitised SRBC had no significant effect of PHA titre. Attempts were also made to study the in vitro antimicrobial sensitivity patterns of the 12 C. jejuni isolates by standard disc diffusion technique. The results indicated all the C. jejuni isolates were sensitive to chloramphenicol, gentamicin and nalidixic acid, irrespective of their source/origin. Eventhough none of the C. jejuni isolated in this study was resistant to erythromycin, only 83.3 per cent of the isolates showed a sensitive zone of inhibition, while, 16.7 per cent showed an intermediary zone of inhibition. C. jejuni isolates recorded 83.3 per cent sensitivity to furazolidone, 75 per cent to streptomycin and 58.3 per cent to ampicillin. Fifty per cent of the isolates showed resistance to oxytetracycline. Of the ten antibiotics tested, 16.6 per cent of the organism were sensitive to penicillin. C. jejuni recorded highest resistance to sulphadiazine as only 8.3 per cent of the organisms were sensitive to sulphadiazine.ThesisItem Open Access Microbial load in frozen bull semen and antibiogram of the isolates(Department of Microbiology, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 1996) Roy Mathew; KAU; Madhusoodanan Pillai, RThe mean bacterial load in the frozen semen procured from the three frozen semen production centres viz., Mannuthy (Centre A), Dhoni (Centre B) and Mattupatti (Centre C) were 2260 + 880.65, 825.91 + 186.06 and 80.33 + 18.47 respectively. The mean bacterial load per dose of semen differed significantly between these three centres. The mean fungal load of semen in Centre A and B were significantly greater than that produced in Centre C. The mean coliform counts, pseudomonad count, staphylococci and micrococci count and mycoplasma count were detected in specific media. Mycoplasma sp. were not detected in Centre A while four out of eleven samples from Centre B and two out of fifteen samples from centre C contained Mycoplasma. The total bacterial load of all the samples from Centre A exceeded the ISI specification of 500 organisms per insemination dose of semen while 72.7 per cent of the samples from Centre B exceeded this limit. None of the samples from Centre C exceeded 500 organisms per dose of semen. The mean bacterial load per dose of semen from bulls below four years of age was significantly higher than those from bulls between the age group of four and six years. The mean bacterial and fungal load per dose of semen from crossbred Holstein Friesians were significantly greater than those of crossbred Jerseys. The bacterial isolates from the semen from these centres where characterised. They belonged to the species, Bacillus licheniformis, B. alvei, B. cereus, B. brevis, Corynebacterium bovis, C. pseudodiphtheriticum, C. hofmanii, Staphylococcus ayreus, S. epidermidis, Aerococcus viridans, Micrococcus varians, Kurthia sp. Flavabacterium sp., Alcaligenes faecalis, Pseudomonas alcaligeness, PS. Mendocina, Levine asp., Enterobacter aerogeness, Enterobacter liquifascians, Edwardsiella tarda, Citrobacter koseri, C. intermedius, C. freundii, Providencia rettgeri, Escherichia coli. The fungal isolates from sêmen, which were characterised belonged to the species Candida albicans, C. pseudotropicalis, C. tropicalis and C. krusei. The filamentous fungi isolated were Aspergillus niger, A. fumigatus, Penicillum sp. and Microporum gypseum. Of the 20 antibiotics studied for the sensitivity pattern, pefloxacin, doxycycline, chloramphenicol, ciprofloxacin and norfloxacin were found to be sensitive to majority of isolates. Among the antifungal agents studied, nystatin followed by clotrimazole were sensitive to more than 80 per cent of the fungal isolates. Nystatin may be used in semen extender for checking the fungal contaminants in frozen semen. The study recommends and addition of the new antibiotics to semen extenders after further field studies.ThesisItem Open Access Restriction endonuclease analysis of duck plague viral DNA(Department of Microbiology, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 1996) Sangeetha Vijaysree; KAU; Punnoose, K TDifferences in the clinical manifestations of infected ducks, pathomorphology in developing duck embryo (DDE), and developing chicken embryo (DCE) and cytopathic effects in duck embryo fibroblast culture (DEFC) and chicken embryo fibroblast culture (CEFC) caused by two virulent strains of duck plague virus – DPV – 1 (procured from I.V.R.I., Izatnager) and DPV – A (isolated from Alleppey) and a vaccine strain – DPV – V (obtained from V.B.I., Palode) were investigated in this study. Restriction endonuclease analysis (REA) was done to assess molecular differences between the strains. Both the virulent strains produced typical symptoms and lesions of duck plague (DP). However, the level of mortality and severity of certain lesions like gizzard muscle necrosis and haemorrhagic bands in the small intestine were more pronounced in DPV – A infection. DPV – V did not produce any symptoms or lesions on experimental inoculation into ducklings. Embryonated duck eggs were used for passage of DPV – 1 and isolation of DPV – A, and DCE was used for propagation of DPV – V. Mortality of embryos with congestive lesions on the CAM and body of the embryo were observed for all the three strains. DPV – A produced more severe congestion on the extremities of inoculated embryos. Both the virulent strains (1 and A) failed to produce lesions in DCE. Both the virulent strains were cultured in DEFC and DPV – V in CEFC. All three strains produced CPE, characteristic of herpes viruses, with rounding and clumping of cells, syncytium formation, vacuolation of cytoplasm and formation of eosinophilic intranuclear inclusion bodies. DPV – A and DPV – V took more time for production of CPE in the first passage with the time taken for CPE production decreasing with successive passages. The three strains of DPV were titrated in embryonated eggs (ELD50 ) and cell cultures (TCID50). DPV – 1 and A had an ELD50 of 105.27 per ml and 104.86 per ml respectively in DDE. The ELD50 of DPV – V was 104 per ml in DCE. TCID50 of DPV – 1and A in DEFC were 105.75 per ml and 105.25 per ml respectively and that of DPV – V in CEFC was 105 per ml. Virus particles ranging in size from 170 – 190 nm with a core size of 70 – 90 nm were observed on electron microscopic examination of processed and concentrated DPV – A material collected from infected DDE. Strains of DPV cultured in DEFC/CEFC were used as virus source for DNA extraction. DPV – 1, V and A had DNA concentrations of 1830 ug per ml, 1470 ug per ml and 1595 ug per ml respectively. Restriction enzyme analysis was done using Eco RI, Bam HI, Xho 1, Pst 1 and Hind 111. Eco RI cleaved all the three strains of DPV into 17 fragments. The restriction profile of DPV – V and A were nearly identical to each other with slight variation from DPV – 1 in fragment size. The RE Bam HI digested both the virulent strains of DPV (1 and A) into 14 fragments which were similar to each other except for the size of two fragments. DPV – V was cleaved into 16 fragments with differences in the size of six to seven fragments on comparison with DPV – 1 and A. The RE Xho 1 cleaved DPV – 1 and V into21 fragments and DPV – A into 23 fragments. All three strains differed from each other in the size of several fragments. Both the virulent strains (DPV – 1 and A) yielded 21 fragments and DPV – V 22 fragments on digestion with Pst 1. Majority of the fragments were below 10 kbp in size and there was variation in the size of 11 – 17 fragments between the strains. Restriction enzyme Hind 111 cleaved DPV – 1, V and A into 23, 22 and 21 fragments respectively. Apart from the difference in fragment number, all the three strains differed from each other in the size of 4 of their fragments. The average molecular size of the genome of DPV – 1, V and A estimated by REA with five REs were 181.23 kbp (Molecular weight 115.067 Megadalton), 184.218 kbp (116.964 Megadalton) and 181.582 Kbp (115.290 Megadalton) respectively. Of the five REs used in this investigation Bam HI, Xho 1, Pst 1 and Hind 111 were found to be more useful in differentiation of the three strains of DPV.