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Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur
The history of agricultural education in Kerala can be traced back to the year 1896 when a scheme was evolved in the erstwhile Travancore State to train a few young men in scientific agriculture at the Demonstration Farm, Karamana, Thiruvananthapuram, presently, the Cropping Systems Research Centre under Kerala Agricultural University. Agriculture was introduced as an optional subject in the middle school classes in the State in 1922 when an Agricultural Middle School was started at Aluva, Ernakulam District. The popularity and usefulness of this school led to the starting of similar institutions at Kottarakkara and Konni in 1928 and 1931 respectively.
Agriculture was later introduced as an optional subject for Intermediate Course in 1953. In 1955, the erstwhile Government of Travancore-Cochin started the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, Thiruvananthapuram and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences at Mannuthy, Thrissur for imparting higher education in agricultural and veterinary sciences, respectively. These institutions were brought under the direct administrative control of the Department of Agriculture and the Department of Animal Husbandry, respectively. With the formation of Kerala State in 1956, these two colleges were affiliated to the University of Kerala. The post-graduate programmes leading to M.Sc. (Ag), M.V.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees were started in 1961, 1962 and 1965 respectively.
On the recommendation of the Second National Education Commission (1964-66) headed by Dr. D.S. Kothari, the then Chairman of the University Grants Commission, one Agricultural University in each State was established. The State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) were established in India as an integral part of the National Agricultural Research System to give the much needed impetus to Agriculture Education and Research in the Country. As a result the Kerala Agricultural University (KAU) was established on 24th February 1971 by virtue of the Act 33 of 1971 and started functioning on 1st February 1972. The Kerala Agricultural University is the 15th in the series of the SAUs.
In accordance with the provisions of KAU Act of 1971, the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, were brought under the Kerala Agricultural University. In addition, twenty one agricultural and animal husbandry research stations were also transferred to the KAU for taking up research and extension programmes on various crops, animals, birds, etc.
During 2011, Kerala Agricultural University was trifurcated into Kerala Veterinary and Animal Sciences University (KVASU), Kerala University of Fisheries and Ocean Studies (KUFOS) and Kerala Agricultural University (KAU).
Now the University has seven colleges (four Agriculture, one Agricultural Engineering, one Forestry, one Co-operation Banking & Management), six RARSs, seven KVKs, 15 Research Stations and 16 Research and Extension Units under the faculties of Agriculture, Agricultural Engineering and Forestry. In addition, one Academy on Climate Change Adaptation and one Institute of Agricultural Technology offering M.Sc. (Integrated) Climate Change Adaptation and Diploma in Agricultural Sciences respectively are also functioning in Kerala Agricultural University.
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ThesisItem Open Access Factors influencing calf growth and mortality in field and organised farms(Department of Livestock Production Management, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 1994) Shaji, Antony .; KAU; Thomas, C KA study was undertaken to evaluate the system of calf raising in the field vis – a – vis that in organised farms, which included contemporary calves born in field and organised farms. Mavelikkara was chosen as the study area from where the experimental field calves were selected. University Livestock Farm, Kerala Agricultural and Dhoni Farm, KLD Board, Palghat were chosen to represent organised farms in the experiment. All the calves born in the experimental area or farms during a period of two months were included in the experiment. Calves were studied upto period of six months of age. It was observed that climatic conditions in general were similar at the three locations except that at ULF, Mannuthy relative humidity and hours of bright sunshine tended to be less than the other two locations. The male calves in the farms weighed heavier at birth and gained faster to weigh significantly more at the 12th fortnight compared to those in the field. There was no significant difference in birth weight of farm and field born female calves. However, those in the farms grew faster to weigh significantly heavier at 12th fortnight. When male and female calves in the farms and field were put together and tested at 1st, 6th and 12th fortnights, the calves in the farms weighed significantly heavier than those in the field at all stages. The daily weight gain during different fortnights was higher in the farm grown calves compared to their counterparts in the field. There was no significant difference in height of male calves in the farm and field in the 1st fortnight but was significantly higher in the farm grown calves in the 6th and 12th fortnights. There was no significant difference in the height of the female calves in the farms and field in all the three fortnights tested. Information with respect to girth showed similar trend as in the case of weight and height. In the first fortnight, the male calves in the farms measured significantly shorter in length than those in the field but by 6th and 12th fortnights, they measured significantly longer than male calves in the field. There was no significant difference in length of female calves in the field and farms during the time intervals tested. In the field, calves received generally an adequate amount of colostrum through suckling. Those in the farm were fed 2 – 2.5 kg colostrum daily from the pail. The interval between birth and first nursing varied from 15 min to 2 h in the field. In the farms, calves born during day time received colostrum within half an hour, while those born in night received colostrum the next morning. Highest daily gain and lowest mortality was seen in calves fed colostrum within 15 minutes. It was observed that the quantity of milk available to female calves in the field was comparable to that in the farms. Male calves in the field received much lesser quantity. Female calves received more quantity of concentrates compared to males except in the early fortnights. Maximum daily gain of calves was observed in sheds with concrete flooring and tiled roofs. Monthly deworming was practised upto 12 months of age in the two farms studied. In the field all calves were dewormed during the 1st month only. Thereafter, female calves were given more frequent deworming treatment. Vaccination against Foot and Mouth disease was carried out in the farms but not in the field. Good hygiene and daily grooming increased the daily gain of calves. Better growth was seen when the animals were looked after by men than women. Average dairy awareness was observed in 90 per cent of the farmers. Daily gain of calves increased with increased dairy awareness. People with high school level education maintained their calves better than those with higher or lower levels of education. Calves grown by agricultural labourers seemed to have lower weight gain. Calves reared in larger units of land had a greater daily weight gain. The mortality rate among calves was 14 per cent in the field compared to 8.5 per cent in the farms. Mortality rate of 66.6 per cent was seen no colostrum was fed. There was no mortality among calves fed colostrum within 15 minutes. Male calves had higher mortality rate than female calves. Higher mortality rate was observed in calves born to first calvers. In field mortality was higher in 1st and 5th month of age. Mortality rate was lower when calves were looked after by men compared to women. The lowest calf mortality rate was observed among calves owned by those who had high school level education. Mortality rate among calves seemed to decrease with increasing dairy awareness of owners. Mortality rate of calves was highest in shed and premises with poor hygiene (50%) followed by medium hygiene (11.11%) and good hygiene (10.5%). Similarly daily grooming seemed to reduces mortality rate (11.9%) compared to weekly grooming (25%). At the end of 6 months, 92.85 per cent of the female calves were retained by the farmers compared to only 36.36 per cent male calves, clearly pointing towards the greater future economic utility of the former.ThesisItem Open Access Analysis of management systems in homestead dairy production units(Department of Livestock Production Management, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 1995) Sudheer, S; KAU; Rajagopalan, T GThe present study was carried out with a view of estimating objectively the existing practices of management components of inputs and cost of milk production in the rural unorganised and organised areas The study was carried out in Kalady panchayat of Ernakulam district The required data was collected from the households by direct observation and personal interview using a pre tested schedule Cattle buffalo and goats were the livestock species mainly reared by farmers Most of the dairymen had a single cow unit A reduction m herd strength was noticed in all the holdings during the last five years Majority of farmers raised their own replacement stock Regarding purchase of animals farmers generally preferred adult cows than heifers or calves Farmers considered attributes like milk production appearance and confirmation colour temperament and age of animals price and also his financial position before purchasing animals Majority of households had pucca cattle sheds and the remaining had kutcha sheds Lean to type houses were more in number than independent houses as it was easier to construct and incurred low construction cost Most of the sheds had feeding mangers The standing space provided for cows in the sheds were more than the space recommended and the width of manger was less than the space recommended by both KAU and ICAR The types of feed fed to livestock are compounded feed concentrate cakes roughages and crop by products and residues The feed stuffs were mainly purchased from private shops markets or co operative societies None of the farmers purchased green fodder they mainly depended on fodder collected from field bunds and other agricultural lands The study revealed the allocation of feed stuff It was higher for animals m milk followed by pregnant and dry cows and heifers It was observed that dairymen of both organised and unorganised sectors fed DCP and TDN m excess of NRC recommendations More attention was bestowed on the feeding of female calves than male calves as majority of farmers were interested m raising replacements In the study area AI was the predominant practise in breeding The study revealed that a large proportion of dairymen were not aware of heat signs and the right time for inseminating their animals The longer calving interval was due to poor heat detection conception failure and deliberate skipping of heat by farmersThesisItem Open Access Comparative draught capacity of cattle and buffaloes(Department of Livestock Production Management, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 1994) Anil, K S; KAU; Thomas, C KThe draught performance of Kangayam bullocks were compared with that of graded Surti buffaloe bullocks under the agro climatic conditions of Kerala with a hot humid tropical climate Two pairs of adult Kangayam bullocks and two pairs of adult graded Surti buffaloe bullocks were used for ploughing both dry land and wet land at the rate of four hours a day during the summer season Physiological responses like respiratory rate pulse rate and rectal temperature and haemotological parameters like haemoglobin per cent erythrocyte sedimentation rate packed cell volume lactic acid and plasma bicarbonate were estimated before work immediately after work and after one hour of rest after work The dry matter intake and water intake on days of work and on days of no work were also measured and compared Other parameters like the area ploughed in one hour average speed of walking stride length and traction force developed during ploughing were also compared between the two species The buffaloe bullocks had significantly lower physiological responses before the start of work when compared to that of indigenous bullocks As a result of work the physiological responses increased significantly in both species The values were higher for buffaloes during dry ploughing The physiological responses including rectal temperature of buffaloes increased to a level indicative of distress due to heat stress There were also other signs of distress like frothing and drooling of saliva and protrusion of tongue But during wet ploughing the responses were not so marked in case of buffaloes and they did not show any apparent signs of distress The physiological responses decreased but did not reach the pre-exercise values after one hour of rest The haemoglobin per cent of blood packed cell volume and plasma bicarbonate content decreased significantly in cattle and buffaloes during dry and wet ploughing The erythrocyte sedimentation rate and blood lactic acid content showed a significant increase as a result of work One hour of rest was not sufficient to bring these parameters to pre exercise values Buffaloes consumed more DM when expressed in grams per kg metabolic body size Both species consumed more on days of no work The difference was more pronounced in case of buffaloes The water intake expressed as ml/kg metabolic body size was significantly higher for buffaloes both on days of work and on days of no work In both the species the water intake remained similar in days on which they were used for work and they were not used Kangayam bullocks ploughed significantly more area per unit time than graded Surti buffaloe bullock Cattle developed significantly more speed than buffaloes during dry ploughing But during wet ploughing the speed was almost same in both species Cattle showed more stride length during dry and wet ploughings than buffaloes But during wet ploughing the difference was negligible There was no significant difference in the traction power developed between cattle and buffaloes during dry or wet ploughings But both species developed higher horse power during wet ploughing Overall the results indicate that during summer in a hot humid tropical environment Kangayam bullocks can be used for dry as well as wet ploughings without any apparent ill effects Graded Surti buffaloe bullocks are on par with Kangayam bullocks under wet-ploughing However they seem to be under severe heat stress and also their work output inferior when used for a continuous 4 hour period of dry-land ploughing under similar climatic conditionsThesisItem Open Access Management information system on Bull Mother Herds(Department of Livestock Production Management, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 1995) Devanand, C P; KAU; Thomas, C KThe study was based on information gathered from the Kerala Livestock Development Board farms at Dhoni and Madupetty. The existing systems of management and the records maintained with respect to the pedigree, growth, feeding, health, disease and treatment, production, reproduction, movement, shed workers routine, housing, shed management and weather were critically studied. The prevailing system of data collection and information management with respect to the parameters mentioned above were observed. Forming this as the background, an attempt was made to develop a flow chart for a computerized management information system for bull mother herds. Simultaneously, a PC based, menu driven, user – friendly package entitled ‘Management Information System – Bull Mother Herds’ (MIS – BMH) was evolved using Foxpro software giving sperial emphasis on the management requirements, information needs and the reports to be complied in bull mother farms. The MIS – BMH programme is structured under a main menu with various sub – menus. The main menu has four options namely data entry, reports, utilities and exit. The first option is used for the on line entry of events as it occurs in the farm. Data pertaining to the herd was grouped in three sections viz., calf, young stock and cow. Input formats were developed for data entry thus continuously updating the data base files storing details on birth, growth, feeding, health, disease and treatment, production, reproduction, movement, workers’ routine, shed management, housing and weather. The ‘Report Menu’ is accessed by selecting the second option in the main menu. The report menu has five options. Objectives and details of infrastructure is the first option in the report menu which provides brief details of the objectives and the composition of the farm. The user is presented with an analysis of the weather data recorded in the farm for a specified period on selecting the second option in the report menu. Some guidelines for the routine management of the stock with regard to calf care at birth, colostrum feeding, feeding of growing and milking animals, hygienic milk production, herd health control, sanitation and other management practices are displayed on choosing the third option in the report menu. ‘Animal Details’ is the fourth option in the Report menu. The sub – menu ‘Animal Report’ has five options namely calf details, young stock details, cow details, animal card and exit. The sub – menu ‘Calf Details’ has eleven options. Option 1 if chosen presents the user the birth details of all the calves born in the farm. The growth details of the calves are presented on choosing option 2. The report on the growth status of the calves in the farm for a specified period is accessed by selecting option 3. Feeding details is option 4. The sub – menu ‘Calf feeding/Consumption’ has three options namely calf feeding, calf consumption and exit. The quantity of milk to be fed to calves in the farm upto 90 days of age based on the feeding schedule entered is indicated to the user. The sub – menu on ‘Calf Health Details’ (option 5 sub – menu) has three options namely calf vaccination, diagnostic test and exit. The details of vaccinations and deworming performed and the diagnostic tests done on the calves in the farm are presented to the user. The disease and treatment report (Option 6 in the sub – menu) provides an account of all the diseases encountered by a calf with brief details of treatment and cost. The movement report is accessed by choosing the option 7 in the sub – menu ‘Calf Details’. It provides information on the number of calves dead, sold, transferred and culled during a specified period. The calf – shed workers routine report providing details about the daily work routine of calf – shed workers is accessed by choosing option 8 in the sub – menu. Details of calf housing are presented on choosing option 9 and calf shed management on selecting option 10. The informations relating to the young stock are accessed by choosing option 2 in the sub – menu on ‘Animal Reports’. The sub – menu ‘Young stock Details’ has eleven options and are organised more or less in the same fashion as in the case of calves with some additions such as options for reproduction. The details of young stock reproduction are accessed by choosing option 6. The sub – menu ‘Young Stock Reproduction’ has three options namely the heat details, AI/PD details and exit. The details of heat observed, inseminations done and pregnancy examination of each animal are furnished. The details of cows can be accessed by choosing option 3 in the sub – menu ‘Animal Report’. The sub menu ‘Cow Details’ displayed has eleven options. The output formats developed for and information furnished on cow growth (option 1), cow health (option 3), cow disease and treatment (option 4) movement (option 6), cowshed workers routine (option 7), cow housing (option 8) and cow herd management (option 9) are similar to that for calf and young stock. The feeding details of cows are accessed on selecting the option 2 in the sub – menu ‘Cow Details’. The sub – menu has four options namely feeding milch cows, feeding dry cows, feeding roughage and exit. The quantity of concentrates to be fed to a milking cow based on its milk production, stage of lactation and gestation is indicated to the user on choosing option 2. The details of feeding dry cows and the roughage feeding schedule are furnished on choosing option 2 and 3 respectively. The details of cow reproduction are presented on choosing option 5 in the sub – menu. The sub – menu ‘Cow Reproduction’ has five options namely heat details, AI/PD details, calving details, cow reproduction card and exit. The heat and AI/PD details furnished are similar to that for young stock. The calving report accessed on selecting option 3 furnishes details of all the calvings that have occurred in the farm for a specified period. The cow reproduction card is displayed on the screen by choosing option 4 in the sub – menu. This presents an overall picture of the reproductive performance of a cow in each lactation/cycle. The details of milk production are accessed by choosing option 10 in the sub – menu ‘Cow Details’. The sub – menu on milk production has seven options namely 100 days’ yield, lactation yield, persistency of milk, daily milk yield comparison, milk utilization day, milk utilization period and exit. The informations furnished are the lactation number, 100 days’ yield, peak yield, days on which peak was attained, lactation length, lactation yield, standard lactation yield, average fat per cent, fat yield in kilogram, 4 per cent fat corrected milk and standard fat corrected milk (corrected for lactation number and fat percentage) of each cow in the farm. Further, details of the persistency of production and a chart showing the daily milk yield of cows corrected for lactation number are presented on choosing option 3 and 4 respectively. Details of the utilization and sales of milk on a day and for a period are also furnished (option 5 and 6). ‘Animal Card’ is option 4 in the sub – menu on animal report. This provides uptodate, quick and accurate information on the status of each animal with respect to pedigree, growth, production, reproduction and disposal. The third option ‘Utilities’ in the main menu provides facilities for modification, deletion, back up, restore and help to the user. The fourth option is exit. The software evolved was tested using data collected from the KLD Board bull mother farm at Dhoni. The informations generated were to be accurate, reliable and consistent with the managemental requirements of a bull mother farm thus making it suitable for use in bull mother farms in India and elsewhere. Though it updates similar packages available in the country, possibilities of further refinement and sophistication still exists. Depending on future processing and analytical requirements, the system can be further developed and expanded by adding on additional program modules or by altering and modifying existing ones.ThesisItem Open Access Draught efficiency of asian elephants (Elephas maximus indicus)(Department of Livestock Production Management, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 1996) Anil Kumar Nair; KAU; Saseendran, P CThe draught performance of elephants were assessed on the basis of the degree of variation from the normal physiological haematological parameters during different hours of operation with different draft. The ability of the elephants to carry out work with different draft were observed on the of basis of fatigue score card and distress signs exhibited by the animal during different hour of operation with different draft. Six elephants were utilized for the study, the elephants were put to work for a period of 3 hour of continuous work from 7 AM to 10 AM, followed by 1 hour rest and 1 hour work after rest with different draft. Physiological responses like respiratory rate, pulse rate, rectal temperature and haematological parameters like haemoglobin per cent, packed cell volume, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, total erythrocyte count, total leukocyte count, mean corpuscular volume, mean corpuscular haemoglobin, mean corpuscular haemoglobin concentration, serum glucose, serum protein, serum calcium, serum phosphorus, serum creatinine, were estimated before before work, immediately after 1 hour, 2 hour, 3 hour followed by one hour rest and 1 hour work after rest. Other parameters like average speed of walking, draft and horsepower developed by elephants were also estimated. As a result of work the physiological responses increased significantly. The physiological responses showed maximum increase at 3 hour of work at 30 per cent draft indicative of distress. There were also other physical signs of distress like frequent spraying of saliva, refusal to work and dragging of feet. The physiological responses decreased but did not reach the pre – exercise values after one hour of rest. The haemoglobin percent of blood, packed cell volume, total erythrocyte count decreased significantly after work. The erythrocyte sedimentation rate shows significant increase after work. The other parameters like average speed, decreased significantly as the duration work progressed. No significant difference were observed in mean corpuscular volume, mean corpuscular haemoglobin concentration and mean corpuscular haemoglobin. Serum glucose content decreased significantly after work serum creatinine significantly increased after work. Overall, the results indicate that the elephants at 10 per cent draft can work for 3 hour continuously without showing any signs at distress, obtaining a comfortable fatigue score below 10. At 20 per cent draft animal starts showing the sign of distress at 3 hour of work with a fatigue score reaching upto 16.63. At 30 per cent draft the elephants starts exhibiting the signs of distress signs at the end of 2 hour of work itself and at 3 hour work the animal is highly fatigued with the fatigue score reaching 20.65. The elephants reaching fatigue score of above 15 were found fatigued.ThesisItem Open Access Analysis of farming systems involving kangayam breed of cattle(Department of Livestock Production Management, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 1995) Kumaravelu, N; KAU; Thomas, C KThe study ‘Analysis of farming system involving kangayam breed of cattle’, was conducted at two different locations, in their home tract in Tamil Nadu and adjoining Palakkad region of Kerala. Information on different aspects of management and utilization pattern were collected by means of a schedule. Investigations into the work performance of the bullocks in the two regions were conducted. Body measurements and morphological characteristics of Kangayam bullocks and cows were also documented. Majority of the bullock – rearing farmers (56.36%) in the Kangayam tract possessed more than 4 ha of land while in adjoining Palakkad region majority of such farmers (47.27%) possessed less than 2 ha of land. The average land holding in Kangayam tract was 4.24 + 0.35 ha compared to 2.95 + 0.54 ha in the Palakkad region. All the farmers in the Kangayam tract and most of the farmers (94.55%) in Palakkad region possessed indigenous ploughs. Majority of the farmers in both the regions possessed indigenous carts. More number of the farmers in both the regions opted to keep the bullocks throughout the year. Farmers procured their bullocks mostly from cattle fairs/markets. The mean age at purchase of bullocks in their home tract was 4.609 + 0.337 years and in adjoining Palakkad region 5.173 + 1.076 years. Maximum number of the farmers in Kangayam tract procured their bullocks around 2.5 years of age, whereas in Palakkad region around 6 years of age. Most of the farmers in both the regions purchased trained bullocks. Majority of the farmers in Kangayam tract (61.82%) and in Palakkad region (76.36%) considered physical appearance and whirling pattern of hair as main body attributes in selection. Larger proportion of the farmers in both the regions procured castrated bullocks. The bullocks in both the regions received locally available feed materials while sorghum straw was the major roughage item fed to the bullocks in Kangayam tract, paddy straw formed the major roughage ingredient in the Palakkad region. In both the regions rice bran formed the major concentrate feed item followed by cotton seed and groundnut cake. During work days, majority of the farmers in both the regions provided water three times a day. Majority of the farmers in both the region provided independent ‘kutcha’ type of houses. In the home tract some farmers did not provide any housing to their bullocks except a wind screen. In Kangayam and Palakkad regions, majority of the farmers shoed their bullocks at an interval of 31 to 60 days. Most of them also got their bullocks vaccinated against diseases like foot and Mouth, Rinderpest, Haemorrhagic Septicaemia and Black Quarter. The total hours of utilization of bullocks in their home tract and in adjoining Palakkad region were 1129. 90 + 59.45 hours spread over 175.29 + 9.18 days in a year and 988.56 + 46.41 hours spread over 155.34 + 8.53 days respectively. Investigation into work performance of bullocks revealed that the mean initial speed of walking of bullocks was significantly (P < 0.05) higher in Kangayam tract when compared to Palakkad area. Mean overall speed of bullocks ploughing dry land was 1.114 + 0.028 m/sec in Kangayam tract, while it was 1.052 + 0.130 m/sec in Palakkad region. The mean stride length of bullocks in Kangayam tract and adjoining Palakkad was 0.88 + 0.02 m and 0.80 + 0.01 m respectively which did not differ significantly. The respiratory rate, pulse rate and rectal temperature increased significantly (P < 0.05) in both the regions as a result of 4 hours of dry – land ploughing. In the home tract of Kangayam, the mean horse power generated by a pair of bullocks was 0.73 + 0.06 and in the adjoining Palakkad region 0.66 + 0.03. However, these did not vary significantly at 5 per cent level. All the animals in both the regions had short, straight and glossy hair coat. Majority of the animals had a grey coat with a black patch on their knees and in front of the fetlocks. Greater proportion of them had horns with inward pointing tips. All the Kangayam cows studied had a bowl shaped udder with cylindrical teats. Some differences in the size and morphological characteristics of the Kangayam animals in the two regions under investigation were found. Horn size, in the Palakkad region was larger in early stages. However as the bullocks matured the trend was reversed with the bullocks in the Kangayam region having larger horns. The face of mature bullocks in the Palakkad area was longer than that of bullocks in the Kangayam tract. The height at withers of the bullocks from the Palakkad region showed a trend of higher values compared to that of Kangayam tract. The Kangayam tract bullocks, eventhough shorter in early stages, overtook their counter – parts in the Palakkad region to measure longer beyond 5 years of age. Above 5 years of age, chest girth had practically little difference between the two groups.ThesisItem Open Access Analysis of management practices and economics of goat rearing under homestead farming system(Department of Livestock Production Management, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 1996) Tony, Thoppil; KAU; Sreekumar, DThe existing practices of management of goats in the homesteads of Palakkad and Malappuram and the economics of rearing have been studied. Majority of the goat farmers in both the regions belonged to the age group 41-60, and were literate. They belonged to the class of daily wage labourers or service personnels. Hindus were predominant in Palakkad, whereas in Malappuram, Muslims were predominant. The land holding of the goat farmers studied in Palakkad ranged from 3 cents to 8 acres and in Malappuram, 7 cents to 2 acres. They were having more than one livestock component in their homesteads. The farmers possessing less than 10 years of experience were more in both the regions. There has been an increase in the flock/band strength from the start of farming in all the homesteads. The animals were procured mostly from other farmers. Does were purchased based on appearance, cost and age and were replaced taking into consideration their size and appearance, age twinning and also colour. Bucks were generally replaced taking into consideration their appearance and age. The type of housing provided to goats was either lean-to-type or a separate shed. The type of floor included either mud or raised wooden floor, the type of roof included either tiled or thatched. The hygiene status of majority of the goat pens was graded as satisfactory in both the regions. The drainage facilities provided were only satisfactory in Palakkad, whereas, in Malappuram, it was adequate. Natural service was the only means of breeding goats in both the regions. Only 41 percent of the farmers (in general)reared breeding bucks and the rest of the farmers depended on the bucks maintained by other farmers. The age at first kidding in majority of the cases in Palakkad was reported to be 18 months and in Malappuram, 15 months. Majority of the farmers in both the regions reported the kidding interval of goats to be 8 months. The goats were either let loose outside or tethered around the homestead for roughage feeding. Concentrate mixture was fed only during very dry/summer season and consisted of groundnut cake and coconut cake. The duration of browsing varied from 3-8 hours. Kids were kept along with the dam. The daily body weight gain of kids was 38.3 g in Palakkad and 41.8 g in Malappuram. Major disease problems encountered by goats in the two regions were digestive problems, respiratory problems, skin lesions, dog bite wounds etc. Farmers, in general did not practice any preventive health care measures for goats. The proportion of farmers who milked their goats was high in Malappuram than Palakkad. Goats were disposed of to other farmers, butchers, and/or middlemen. Goat manure was sold out by majority of farmers in Palakkad (70%) and 5 percent in Malappuram. Involvement of women in indoor activities were more than men. Children were involved more in the disposal of milk. The hired labour utilization was negligible. In general, fixed cost and variable cost were lower in Palakkad than Malappuram but the gross income was more in Malappuram than Palakkad. The net margin over cost A and cost B was positive where as net margin was negative over cost C. The major constraints faced by farmers were feeding availability of labour and disposal of manure.ThesisItem Open Access Certain social enviromental factors on the reproductive performance of pigs(Department of Livestock Production Management, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 1996) Ramakrishnan, S; KAU; Sebasatian, K SAn experiment was conducted to study the effect of social environment on the reproductive performance of pigs and the feasibility and economics of rearing pigs of either sex together. Sixteen weaned large white Yorkshire gilts, twelve weaned sows and two boars were randomly assigned to five groups as T1, T2, T3, T4, and T5 each consisting of six. Pigs in T1 and T3 groups were bred at the body weight of 70 – 80 kg with designated boars at the time of breeding. The pigs in T5 group were bred in the first oestrus after weaning. In T2 and T4 group female pigs were reared with boar. Post weaning oestrus, duration of oestrus, conception rate and gestation length did not vary significantly between groups. Onset and intensity of oestrus were significantly different (P < 0.05) between groups. All gilts and sows in each group were allowed to farrow in the same pen and their litter performance was studied. The litter size and weight at birth did not vary significantly (P > 0.05) between the groups. Litter size and weight at weaning did not vary significantly (P > 0.05) between groups. The behaviour of parents and other penmates towards the litter did not vary significantly between groups. The behaviour of penmates to the litter was cordial. Overall results suggest that in farming conditions group housing system can be practiced. It is advisable to keep animals in advanced stage of pregnancy in farrowing pens till weaning of piglings.ThesisItem Open Access Influence of age and weight of gilt on breeding performance and feed intake during gestation and suckling period(Department of Livestock Production Management, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 1995) Kannan, A; KAU; Kurien, ThomasAn experiment was conducted to determine the influence of age and body weight of gilt on the breeding performance and feed intake during gestation and suckling period and to recommend an optimum age and body weight for breeding. Forty eight weaned female Piglings were randomly assigned into eight (A, B, C, D, E, F, G and H) groups each consisting of six. Pigs in group A, B, C and D were bred to designated boars on attaining seven, eight, nine and ten month of age. Similarly pigs in group E, F, G and H were bred to designated boars on attaining body weight of 70, 80, 90 and 100 kg respectively, irrespective their ages. Two pigs from each group were slaughtered within a week after mating and the genitalia were studied. The length, weight of uterus, ovarian weight and ovulation rate were increasing with increasing order of age and body weight of the animal. Remaining four pig in each of group were allowed to farrow and their litter performance was studied. The litter size, weight at birth and weaning were significantly (P < 0.01) different between the groups. The prepartum weight gain did not vary significantly in pigs of different age and weight. The weight at weaning significantly (P < 0.01) varied in pigs of different age and body weight at breeding. The food consumed during gestation period was not significantly different between groups while during suckling period it significantly (P < 0.01) varied with age and body weight at breeding. The onset of post weaning estrus did not vary significantly between groups. Overall results suggested that economic and optimum age and weight at breeding was nine months and 90 kg.