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Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur
The history of agricultural education in Kerala can be traced back to the year 1896 when a scheme was evolved in the erstwhile Travancore State to train a few young men in scientific agriculture at the Demonstration Farm, Karamana, Thiruvananthapuram, presently, the Cropping Systems Research Centre under Kerala Agricultural University. Agriculture was introduced as an optional subject in the middle school classes in the State in 1922 when an Agricultural Middle School was started at Aluva, Ernakulam District. The popularity and usefulness of this school led to the starting of similar institutions at Kottarakkara and Konni in 1928 and 1931 respectively.
Agriculture was later introduced as an optional subject for Intermediate Course in 1953. In 1955, the erstwhile Government of Travancore-Cochin started the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, Thiruvananthapuram and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences at Mannuthy, Thrissur for imparting higher education in agricultural and veterinary sciences, respectively. These institutions were brought under the direct administrative control of the Department of Agriculture and the Department of Animal Husbandry, respectively. With the formation of Kerala State in 1956, these two colleges were affiliated to the University of Kerala. The post-graduate programmes leading to M.Sc. (Ag), M.V.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees were started in 1961, 1962 and 1965 respectively.
On the recommendation of the Second National Education Commission (1964-66) headed by Dr. D.S. Kothari, the then Chairman of the University Grants Commission, one Agricultural University in each State was established. The State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) were established in India as an integral part of the National Agricultural Research System to give the much needed impetus to Agriculture Education and Research in the Country. As a result the Kerala Agricultural University (KAU) was established on 24th February 1971 by virtue of the Act 33 of 1971 and started functioning on 1st February 1972. The Kerala Agricultural University is the 15th in the series of the SAUs.
In accordance with the provisions of KAU Act of 1971, the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, were brought under the Kerala Agricultural University. In addition, twenty one agricultural and animal husbandry research stations were also transferred to the KAU for taking up research and extension programmes on various crops, animals, birds, etc.
During 2011, Kerala Agricultural University was trifurcated into Kerala Veterinary and Animal Sciences University (KVASU), Kerala University of Fisheries and Ocean Studies (KUFOS) and Kerala Agricultural University (KAU).
Now the University has seven colleges (four Agriculture, one Agricultural Engineering, one Forestry, one Co-operation Banking & Management), six RARSs, seven KVKs, 15 Research Stations and 16 Research and Extension Units under the faculties of Agriculture, Agricultural Engineering and Forestry. In addition, one Academy on Climate Change Adaptation and one Institute of Agricultural Technology offering M.Sc. (Integrated) Climate Change Adaptation and Diploma in Agricultural Sciences respectively are also functioning in Kerala Agricultural University.
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ThesisItem Open Access Characteization and evaluation of nutmeg (Myristica fragrans Houtt.) accessions(Department of Plantation Crops and Spices, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2016) Vikram, H C; KAU; Mini Raj, NNutmeg (Myristica fragrans Houtt.) is an introduced crop to India. There exists tremendous variability in the nutmeg population in Kerala, which is the major nutmeg growing state in the country. Assessment of the existing variability is a prerequisite for taking up successful crop improvement programmes, which is very much limited in this tree spice. In this context, the present study entitled “Characterization and evaluation of nutmeg (Myristica fragrans Houtt.) accessions” was taken up exclusively with the specific objectives to characterize nutmeg accessions based on morphological, biochemical and molecular parameters so as to scale the variability in a multidimensional way. Select fifty nutmeg accessions from a core germplasm collected and maintained in a private plantation in the Chalakudy river basin, belonging to age of fifteen years, formed the material for the study. Among the select fifty accessions, forty two were females, four monoecious and four males. In the morphological characterization, 51 qualitative and 38 quantitative characters were recorded from two trees per accession. Biochemical characterization was done in the select seventeen distinct accessions. GC-MS profiling was done in kernel and mace oils. Biochemical constituents of fresh pericarp were estimated. Isozyme profiling was done for peroxidase and polyphenol oxidase enzymes. The molecular characterization was attempted with 21 RAPD and 12 ISSR primers after screening. A key for identification of an elite nutmeg tree was developed. A descriptor for nutmeg with a set of 51 qualitative and 38 quantitative parameters and descriptor states for each of these characters was developed as the first step. This is the first study of its kind to develop a minimal descriptor for nutmeg. The descriptor developed from the present study was simultaneously utilised for morphological characterization and evaluation of the accessions. Wide variability was noticed among the accessions for 47 out of 51 qualitative characters. Four characters viz., leaf margin, fruit pubescence, grooves on nut and nature of fruit dehiscence were noted as non variable characters and hence, these were not included for further analysis. Based on the qualitative characters, accessions were classified into 11 clusters at 66 per cent similarity level. Accessions differed significantly for all the quantitative characters except shelling percentage. Performance evaluation of the accessions brought out the superiority of accession 8, 9 and 22 for yield. The accessions showed high GCV, PCV, h2 and genetic gain for most of the characters. Number of fruits per tree, fruit set percentage, number of fruits per m2, fresh and dry weight of mace, mace volume as well ratio of nut to mace exhibited high genetic gain. Hence, selection programme based on these characters will be very effective in improving the base populations. Based on Mahalanobis D2 analysis, accessions were grouped into 10 clusters. Wide range of variation was observed in contents of volatile oil, oleoresin and fixed oil of kernel and mace. Based on these constituents accessions were grouped into 26 clusters, which indicated their distinct quality. Based on the results of the morphological characterization, seventeen distinct accessions were selected for further biochemical and molecular analysis. GC-MS analysis of kernel and mace oils exhibited 20 and 24 constituents respectively. Volatile oil composition exhibited wide variability for the major constituents viz., myristicin, elemicin, safrole and sabinene apart from the presence of some unique compounds. Grouping of the accessions was done based on the per cent content of these important compounds. Two accessions recorded high contents of both myristicin and elemicin whereas another two accessions were in the complimentary; belonging to low myristicin group. High sabinene combined with low myristicin was the intrinsic quality attribute of one of the accessions. Change, as well as addition/deletion of specific constituents was also noticed in the volatile oils after storage for one year. Accessions exhibited wide range of variation in the biochemical constituents of pericarp, a valuable information for the value addition of pericarp. Total phenol and tannins exhibited high variation. The accessions were ranked based on the content of biochemical constituents. Isozyme profiling using peroxidase enzyme produced four bands and that based on polyphenol oxidase exhibited three bands. Molecular markers could assess the variability among the accessions. The selected 21 RAPD primers produced a total of 164 amplicons of which 63.21 per cent were polymorphic. The 12 ISSR primers selected produced a total of 87 amplicons of which 69.44 per cent were polymorphic. Few unique bands were detected for specific characters. Inter cluster association of each of the qualitative clusters with other clustering patterns was worked out. The results indicated the differences as well as similarities of the qualitative clusters with other clustering patterns. Finally, key quantitative characters were identified based on their direct and indirect effect on yield as also economic importance. The statistical key thus developed using 13 key quantitative characters will serve as a preliminary tool for identification of an elite nutmeg tree.ThesisItem Open Access Incorporation of tomato leaf curl virus (Tolcv) resistance in bacterial wilt resistant tomato.(Department of Olericulture, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2011) Koteswararao, Yadav; KAU; Sadhankumar, P GInvestigations on “Incorporation of Tomato Leaf Curl Virus (ToLCV) resistance in bacterial wilt resistant tomato” were undertaken in the Department of Olericulture, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara during the period from January, 2009 to May, 2011. Eighty tomato genotypes collected from India and abroad were screened for ToLCV resistance of which 26 were found to be highly resistant under natural screening. Of these, 20 genotypes (LE-474, LE-635, LE-640, LE-658, LE-666, LE-667, Arka Ananya, IIHR-2195, IIHR-2196, IIHR-2197, IIHR-2198, IIHR-2202, IIHR-2747, TLBRH-1, TLBRH-6, Cherry Tomato, H-24, H-86, Hawaii-7998 and Rani) were highly resistant to ToLCV under both graft transmission and whitefly transmission there by confirming their resistance to ToLCV. Seventy six tomato genotypes were screened for bacterial wilt resistance in bacterial wilt sick plot. Spot planting with known suscept Pusa Ruby was done to confirm the presence of virulent bacteria in the field. Anagha, Sakthi, Mukthi, LE-1-2, LE-626 and LE-474 were resistant to bacterial wilt. Three additional sources of resistance were identified viz., LE-628, LE-640 and LE-649. Five bacterial wilt resistant genotypes (Anagha, Sakthi, Mukthi, LE-1-2 and LE-626) were crossed with seven ToLCV resistant genotypes (IIHR-2195, IIHR-2196, H-24, H-86, Hawaii-7998, LE-474 and LE-640) in a line x tester fashion. Thirty five F1 hybrids developed were screened for both ToLCV and bacterial wilt resistance. Thirty hybrids were highly resistant to tomato leaf curl virus (ToLCV) among the 35 hybrids. Sixteen F1 hybrids were resistant to bacterial wilt. There were 15 F1 hybrids which were resistant to both ToLCV and bacterial wilt. Line x tester analysis was performed to derive information on general combining ability and specific combining ability effects, gene action and heterosis. Good general combiners for different characters were identified. Among the F1 hybrids Anagha x LE-640 was the earliest to flower and earliest to harvest. Sakthi x LE-640 (1.4 kg/plant) gave the maximum yield among the hybrids and parents followed by Mukthi x H-86 (1.1 kg/plant) and LE-1-2 x Hawaii-7998 (1.06 kg/plant). Maximum number of fruits were produced by LE-1-2 x Hawaii-7998 (39.67 fruits/plant). The maximum sized fruits were produced by Anagha x IIHR-2195 (55.93 g) followed by Sakthi x LE-640 (55.78 g) and Sakthi x IIHR-2196 (55.09 g). F2 segregants of 35 crosses were screened for combined resistance to bacterial wilt and ToLCV. Thirty F2 segregants were resistant to both bacterial wilt and ToLCV. Mukthi x IIHR-2195-F2-47 (1.7 kg/plant) and Mukthi x IIHR-2195- F2-34 (1.5 kg/plant) were the highest yielders among the 30 segregants. Segregation pattern in F1, F2, B1 and B2 of the cross combination Pusa Ruby x IIHR-2195 revealed that the resistance to ToLCV in IIHR-2195 is controlled by a single dominant gene.ThesisItem Open Access Collection and evaluation of marigold (Tagetes spp.) genotypes for humid tropics(Department of Pomology and Floriculture, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2017) Shajma Nafeesa, Basheer; KAU; Sabina George, TThe present study entitled ‘Collection and evaluation of marigold (Tagetes spp.) genotypes for humid tropics was conducted in the Department of Pomology and Floriculture, College of Agriculture, Vellayani during 2012-2015, with an objective to collect and evaluate the genotypes of Tagetes spp. for growth, yield of fresh flowers and floral attributes in two planting seasons, ie, October and May planting and to select promising genotypes for loose flower production and for landscaping. The experimental material consisted of twenty five genotypes of Tagetes erecta and five genoytpes of Tagetes patula. These were evaluated in the field in a randomized block design with three replications. Significant differences were observed among the genotypes for plant growth characters, foliage characters, flowering and yield characters and flower characters in both planting seasons. In both October and May plantings, TEG 5 and TEG 6 maintained greater plant height and the lowest plant height were found to be in TPG 17 and TPG 18. The maximum plant spread was recorded in TEG 5 in October planting and in TPG 21 in May planting. The highest number of primary branches per plant was recorded in TEG 6 followed by TEG 5 in October planting and in TEG 16 followed by TEG 5 and TEG 8 in May planting. The highest number of secondary branches was recorded by TEG 14 in October planting and by TPG 21 in May planting. Among flowering and yield characters, in October planting, the lowest number of days to flowering was recorded in Tagetes patula genotypes, TPG 19, TPG 18 and TPG 21 (33.33 days) and the lowest number of days to flower opening in TPG 21 and TPG 17 (45.33 days). In May planting, the Tagetes erecta genotype TEG 11 recorded the lowest number of days to flower initiation (49.00) and flower opening (68.33). TEG 29 recorded the longest flowering duration in both October and May planting. The maximum number of flowers per plant and flower yield per plant was observed in TEG 16 in October planting. In May planting, TPG 18 followed by TEG 16 recorded the maximum number of flowers. The genotype TEG 16 also recorded the highest flower yield per plant in May planting and the highest number of viable seeds per plant in both the seasons. TEG 11 recorded higher values for fresh weight of flower in both the seasons of investigation. In October planting and May planting, the highest value for petal meal per kg of fresh flowers was recorded in TEG 29 and the maximum petal meal per ha was recorded in TEG 5 in October planting and in TEG 29 in May planting. The highest total carotenoid content was recorded by TEG 3 followed by TEG 2 in both the seasons. Among the flower characters, TEG 5 the highest number of ligulate floret whorls and TEG 11 recorded the highest value for length of floret, flower diameter, girth of floral receptacle in both the seasons. Significantly higher flower stalk length was observed for TEG 3 and the longest vase life was recorded by TEG 7 in both the seasons of investigation. Genetic variability studies showed that genotypic coefficient of variation (GCV) was higher than phenotypic coefficient of variation (PCV) for all the characters. High GCV and PCV and high heritability was observed for all the characters studied. Correlation studies revealed a highly significant positive correlation of flower yield with number of flowers per plant, plant spread, fresh weight of flowers, length of floret, crop duration and number of secondary branches per plant. Path analysis studies showed that fresh weight of flowers had the highest direct positive effect on flower yield per plant followed by number of flowers per plant and plant height. Cluster analysis based on D2 values divided the thirty genotypes of marigold into six clusters with Cluster V recording the maximum number of genotypes and Cluster I, the minimum number of genotypes.Seasonal evaluation of the genotypes showed that May planting was found to be better than October planting in terms of plant growth characters, flower yield and flower characteristics. Earlier initiation of flowering was however observed in October planting in all the genotypes. The present study revealed that, the Tagetes erecta genotypes TEG 5, TEG 29, TEG 25, TEG 30, TEG 22, TEG 11 and TEG 7 may be suitable for commercial loose flower production. The genotype TEG 16 with semiupright habit may be suited for plant compactness and flower production. The genotypes TEG 3 and TEG 2, with higher carotenoid content may be suitable for pigment extraction. The Tagetes patula genotypes, TPG 21 and TPG 18 with dwarf spreading plant habit and the Tagetes erecta genotype TEG 11 with semiupright plant habit may be suitable as flowering ground covers in landscaping. The wide range of genetic variability available in marigold genotypes can be utilized for further crop improvement programmes through direct selection and hybridization.ThesisItem Open Access Development of parthenocarpic Gynoecious hybrids in cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) for protected cultivation(Department of Olericulture, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2017) Ajay Bhardwaj; KAU; Pradeepkumar, TParthenocarpy along with gynoecious sex expression is an asset for protected cultivation of cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.). Cultivation of parthenocarpic gynoecious hybrids is gaining attention of the growers as it is a reliable and profitable venture. But still, the growers are left with the option of choosing from the private sector hybrids which costs very high (Rs. 4 to 7 per seed) or from very limited public sector hybrids which are yet to be tested at various places. Realizing the need and challenge, the present work ‘Development of parthenocarpic gynoecious hybrids in cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) for protected cultivation’ was carried out at Department of Olericulture, College of Horticulture, Kerala Agricultural University, Vellanikkara, Thrissur during the period of 2012 - 2017 to develop the parthenocarpic gynoecious lines and then F 1 hybrids for protected cultivation at Kerala. For maintaining the germplasm, in vitro seed germination protocol of two parthenocarpic (CS 130 and CS 131), one gynoecious (EC 709119) and one monoecious (L-04) genotype was standardized. Maximum shoot initiation (100 %) from seedling excised cotyledonary leaf explants was obtained with the half strength MS medium supplemented with 0.5 mg/l IAA and 2 mg/l BAP. Shoot initiation from stem nodal explants was achieved in A 2 (Full MS + 1.5 mg/l IAA + 2 mg/l BAP) media whereas half strength MS media without any hormones resulted in rooting. In vitro development of fertile male and female flowers was also noticed in all genotypes. Field evaluation of regenerated plants was also carried out and reduced expression of parthenocarpy was observed. Silver thiosulphate (STS) solution varying from 150 to 600 ppm concentrations was used for inducing male flowers in the gynoecious and parthenocarpic lines. The STS spray (twice) at 300 ppm was found best for early male flower induction and longer duration of male phase. Development of inbreds and evaluation of genetic variation helps to provide valuable information about improved and new sources of genes. Four inbreds were developed by selfing and following single seed descent method for up to I 5 generations. The four inbred lines (CS 130, CS 131, CS 132 and CS 133) exhibited variation in ranges for all the selected characters across generations. Parthenocarpic expression exhibited less variation in advanced generations. The I 4 and I 5 generation inbreds were evaluated under RBD with three replications for 12 quantitative and nine qualitative traits. Cucumber germplasm exhibited presence of significant differences among inbreds for majority of characters. On the basis of mean performance, the genotypes CS 133 was found superior for majority of the preferred quantitative and qualitative traits. High GCV and PCV estimates were observed for downy mildew PDI (%) in all the seasons, and parthenocarpy in pooled over seasons. High heritability with high genetic advance estimates were observed for downy mildew PDI (%) and yield per plant (kg) in I 4 generation, downy mildew PDI (%) in I 5 and pooled over generations. Based on the performance for quantitative and qualitative traits in both the generations, three genotypes were selected for the crossing programme. Gynoecious inbred (EC 709119) was also utilized for full diallel mating programme (4 × 4) including reciprocals for combining ability and heterosis studies. Evaluation of 12 hybrid combinations developed through full diallel mating design and their parents along with standard check ‘Hilton’ for 16 quantitative and 10 qualitative traits indicated presence of significant difference for GCA, SCA and reciprocal effects. Among the parental genotypes, CS 133 exhibited significantly high GCA effects for majority of the desirable traits followed by CS 130. The hybrids, CS 132 × CS 133 and CS 130 × CS 132 showed significant SCA effects for desirable traits viz., days to first harvest, fruits per plant, yield per plant (kg), downy mildew PDI (%) and parthenocarpy (%). CS 133 × CS 132, CS 130 × CS 132 and CS 132 × CS 133 were exhibiting significant standard heterosis estimates for majority of the desirable quantitative traits. CS 133 × CS 132 was the most promising hybrid based on SCA effects, heterosis and per se performance for desirable quantitative and qualitative traits (crispness/texture).ThesisItem Open Access Standardization of agrotechniques for precision farming in watermelon [Citrultus lanatus (Thunb.) Mastum. & Nakai](Department of Olericulture, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2017) Nisha, S K; KAU; Sreelathakumary, IThe investigation entitled “Standardization of agrotechniques for precision farming in watermelon [Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum. & Nakai]” was carried out at the Department of Olericulture, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, during the period 2014-2016, to identify small fruited varieties / hybrids of watermelon with high yield and quality and to standardize the agrotechniques for precision farming in watermelon. The investigation comprised of two separate experiments. The first experiment on ‘Evaluation of varieties / hybrids of watermelon’ was undertaken from December 2014 to April 2015. The experimental material consisted of 20 watermelon accessions, including three varieties and 17 hybrids. The experiment was laid out in RBD with two replications. The analysis of variance revealed highly significant differences among the twenty accessions for all the characters studied. The highest yield plant-1 was recorded in the hybrid IB-23 (14.17 kg) followed by IB-20 and Saraswati, while the highest fruits plant-1, high TSS and earliness in flowering as well as harvest was observed in the hybrid Prachi. The variety Arka Muthu registered the lowest vine length of 1.20 m. High and moderate phenotypic and genotypic coefficients of variation (PCV and GCV) were noticed for most of the yield contributing characters. High estimates of heritability coupled with high to moderate genetic advance as per cent of mean was recorded for all the yield components, indicating additive gene action. Yield had positive and significant correlation with the yield contributing characters such as fruit equatorial diameter, fruit polar diameter, fruits plant-1, fruit weight and seeds fruit-1. Path analysis revealed that fruit weight had the highest positive direct effect on yield plant-1 followed by fruits plant-1. Fusarium wilt was the major disease observed in few accessions during the study. Sensory evaluation revealed the superiority of the hybrid Prachi over other accessions. The second experiment on ‘Standardization of agrotechniques for precision farming under rain shelter and open condition’ was conducted simultaneously under rain shelter and open condition, from December 2015 to April 2016, using the best hybrid Prachi. It was conducted in factorial RBD with twelve treatments and two controls, with two replications. The treatments were three levels fertilizer viz., F1 - 75% of recommended dose (RD) (52.5: 37.5: 90 kg NPK ha-1), F2 - 100% of RD (70: 50: 120 kg NPK ha-1) and F3 - 125% of RD (87.5 : 62.5: 150 kg NPK ha-1); irrigation at two levels ie., I1- 80% Epan and I2 - 60% Epan; and two levels of training viz., T1- nipping to one vine and T2 - nipping to two vines. Vines were trained vertically under rain shelter and horizontally in open cultivation. The two controls were, Control 1- Ad hoc recommendation for precision farming (70: 50: 120 kg NPK ha-1) with irrigation at 100% Epan and Control 2 - KAU Package of Practices recommendations (POP). Fertilizer levels had significant influence on flowering and yield attributes of watermelon. The treatment F2 registered highest yield plant-1 both under rain shelter and open condition, and was on par with F1 under rain shelter. The effect of irrigation on vine length, fruit equatorial diameter, polar diameter and ascorbic acid content was also significant under both conditions. The irrigation level I1 recorded the highest yield plant-1 under rain shelter (11.10 kg) and open (8.42 kg). Training to two vines significantly improved fruits plant-1 and yield plant-1 under rain shelter while training had no significant influence under open condition. The water requirement was 272.27 mm (I1) and 179.63 mm (I2) under rain shelter and 239.79 mm (I1) and 184.02 mm (I2) in open condition. Compared to conventional surface irrigation, drip irrigation registered higher water use efficiency at both levels of irrigation. Pooled analysis also revealed that yield plant-1 was the highest in fertilizer level F2, irrigation level I1 and training level T2. Among the growing conditions, rain shelter recorded the highest number of fruits plant-1 (5.49), yield plant-1 (10.05 kg) and maximum days to final harvest (115.53 DAT). Interaction effect of rain shelter with training to two main vines recorded the highest fruits plant-1 (6.08) and yield plant-1 (10.73 kg). Among the controls, Ad hoc recommendation for precision farming was significantly superior to KAU POP recommendation. The present study revealed the superiority of fertilizer dose 70: 50: 120 kg NPK ha-1 (F2) and daily irrigation at 80 per cent Epan (I1) for watermelon under rain shelter and open condition for yield and quality. Training to two vines could be recommended for higher production under rain shelter. The hybrids Prachi, Saraswati and Simran producing fruits having high TSS, small size and more number of fruits were found promising under South Kerala condition.ThesisItem Open Access Diversity analysis and reproductive biology of milk yam (Ipomoea digitata L.)(Department of Plantation Crops and Spices, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2017) Vidya, K M; KAU; Jessykutty, P CThe present study “Diversity analysis and reproductive biology of milk yam (Ipomoea digitata L.)” was carried out in the Department of Plantation Crops and Spices, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, during 2013-16, with the objectives of estimating the magnitude of genetic variation in morphological and biochemical traits in milk yam accessions and identifying superior accessions with high tuber yield and active ingredient content. A detailed study of reproductive biology and investigations on regional variation, influence of climatic and soil factors on phytochemical content in milk yam were also envisaged in the study. A survey was conducted in natural growing tracts of Kerala and twenty accessions of milk yam (both tubers and vines) were collected. Tubers of each accession were subjected to preliminary phytochemical screening. The accessions were raised in the field during 2015-16 for analyzing phenotypic diversity and were evaluated for yield and active ingredient content in randomized block design with three replications. Ethnobotanical information collected in the study showed that in Thiruvananthapuram District, the tuber powder along with cow milk was mainly used as galactagogue and with honey as a tonic whereas, in Kollam and other District the root powder was mainly used as galactagogue and tonic for children. Traditional medical practitioners use tubers of I. digitata for preparing galactagogues and immuno modulatory herbal medicines. Data collected on climatic soil characters of natural growing tracts of milk yam revealed that it has wide adaptability to varying climatic and soil conditions. In the initial phytochemical screening significant regional variation in phytoconstituents were noticed and accessions T20 (Udumbanchola, Idukki) along with T1 (Meppadi, Wayanad), T7, T16 and T9 (Kalliyoor, Pallichal and Punnamoodu, Thiruvananthapuram) recorded superior values for phytochemical content. High performance liquid chromatography analysis of tuber powder (T3 and T11) detected the presence of two compounds viz., Rutin and Nicotinic acid in the tuber which has not been reported so far. In the field experiment analysis of variance revealed significant variation in vine, leaf (except petiole length) and yield characters. The accessions which produced highest fresh tuber yield were T15 (870.47g), T17 (821.93g), T11 (752.3g), T12 (744.13g), T6 (698.53g) and T3 (620.27g). Among these accessions, T11 (Kumbalangy, Ernakulam District) and T3 (Panamaram, Wyanadu District) recorded superior values for phytoconstituents in both first and second year analysis. Accessions T13 and T9 (Neyyattinkara and Punnamoodu) recorded the highest values for all phytoconstituents during the second year analysis; however their tuber yield was comparatively lesser. Detailed investigations on reproductive biology of milk yam revealed that the plants exhibit moderate flowering habit and produced cymose inflorescence with bright pinkish showy flowers (5.9 x 4.2 cm) with longevity of 8-10 hrs. Pollen grains of milk yam were identified to be of monard type with pantoporate aperture morphology and spinose exine ornamentation. Shape of pollen was spherioidal with pointed spines. Diameter of pollen ranged from 63.6-102μm, spine length (8.28-11.5μm), inter spinal distance (5-6.7μm), aperture diameter (2.8-4.6μm), style length (23.5-25.8mm) and length of filament ranged from 21.2-25mm. Stigma remained receptive for eight hours from the time of anthesis. 97.81 per cent of pollens were fertile and 94.96 per cent pollens were found to be viable. 80 per cent fruit set was observed in open pollination. Five different pollinators were identified visiting the flowers for both nectar and pollens. Fruit is a capsule containing four seeds with average size of 0.7 cm x 0.8 cm. The characters, fresh and dry tuber yield per plant, number as well as girth of tubers, and protein content in the tuber showed the highest difference between PCV and GCV which indicates that the influence of environment on these characters is considerable. But lower difference between GCV and PCV for the biochemical characters viz., glycoside, alkaloids, carbohydrates, and flavonoid content in tubers and morphological characters viz., mature leaf length and breadth pointed out that the variation observed in these characters are mainly due to genetic reasons. High heritability coupled with high genetic advance was observed for morphological characters viz., plant height, internode diameter and biochemical parameters viz., carbohydrates, flavonoids and oils. This indicates additive gene action for these characters and genetic improvement can be done by selection based on phenotypic performance. Significant regional variations in phytoconstituents exist in milk yam accessions and accessions from Wyanad, Idukki and Thiruvananthapuram are rich in phytoconstituents. The phytochemical content in milk yam tubers increases with maturity and accessions with higher tuber yields need not be rich in phytoconstituents and vice versa. Two promising accession with high tuber yield and significant phytochemical content identified in the study are T3 (Panamaram) and T11 (Kumbalangy). Apart from collecting, detailed information of reproductive biology of milk yam, the study also revealed the influence of environment in yield and protein content of milk yam tubers. Glycoside, alkaloid, carbohydrates, and flavonoid content in tubers were found to be genetically controlled. An immense scope for research in I. digitata L. exists since its therapeutic and functional potential is not exploited deeply. Phytochemical profiling of the tubers is necessary to get a gross idea of the contents present in the drug which will not only help to have a chemical mapping of the drug but also will be helpful in assessing the probable mode of action of the drug. Its tuberisation morphology as well as anatomy, phytochemical characterization using sophisticated and accurate analytical tools like chromatography, spectroscopy etc. can be beneficial for authenticating the crude drug to prevent its adulteration with Vidari (Peuraria tuberosa).ThesisItem Open Access Instant juice powders of cashew apple (Anacardium occidentale L.) and pineapple (Ananas comosus (L.) Merr.)(Department of Processing Technology, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2017) Rafeekher, M; Mini, CThe present investigation entitled ‘Instant juice powders of cashew apple (Anacardium occidentale L.) and pineapple (Ananas comosus (L.) Merr.)’ was carried out in the Department of Processing Technology, College of Agriculture, Vellayani during 2013-2016 to optimise the process parameters for micro encapsulation through spray drying of cashew apple and pineapple juices, to evaluate the effect of drying on physical, chemical and nutritional quality parameters of fruit powders, to formulate blended fruit powder and to assess organoleptic quality, storage stability, economics and consumer acceptability of the standardised formulations. Fruit juice mixed with a carrier, maltodextrin or resistant dextrin in 80: 20, 70:30, 60:40, 50:50 and 40: 60 solid ratios were fed to co-current spray drier at inlet temperatures of 150oC, 160oC, 170oC, 180oC, 190oC and 200oC for optimization of drying parameters of cashew apple, pineapple and their equal blend independently. Feed rate was varied to maintain the outlet temperature at 88 ± 2OC with 4 bar atomization pressure and 2000 rpm blower capacity. Carrier resistant dextrin, juice solid to carrier ratio of 40:60 and 160oC inlet temperature resulted in high recovery of fine, coarse and bulked fruit powders. This combination recovered 72.09, 85.62 and 74.70 per cent of total solid content from juice carrier mix of cashew apple, pineapple and their equal blend respectively of which 40.55, 47.06 and 42.02 per cent were from cyclone. Based on higher recovery percentages, five treatment combinations (150oC to 190oC with 40:60 ratio) from each carrier were selected and subjected to physicochemical analysis. Resistant dextrin yielded fruit powders with low moisture, dispersible solids, viscosity, angle of repose and with high per cent soluble solids, lightness and hue angle, whereas maltodextrin yielded fruit powders with high total soluble solids. Resistant dextrin lowered chromaticity of pineapple and blended juice powder in contrast to the effect in cashew apple. Resistant dextrin produced pineapple powder with low water activity while maltodextrin improved bulk density of cashew apple and blended powder. Inlet temperature of 160oC yielded fruit powders with higher bulk density whereas powder moisture and angle of repose were low at 190oC. Drying at 160oC could decrease water activity and improve total soluble solids of cashew apple powder whereas reduction in water activity and chromaticity along with improvement of hue angle were observed in blended juice powders. Powders with resistant dextrin had high glass transition temperature and low hygroscopicity. Powder particles were spherical with 3 - 30 μm size and had occasional surface dents. None of the treatment combinations influenced sinkability of powders. Maltodextrin yielded fruit powders with high sugars and resistant dextrin yielded cashew apple powder with high vitamin C. Carriers did not significantly influence the energy value of fruit powders. Inlet temperature of 160 oC yielded vitamin C rich powders from all fruits as well as β-carotene rich pineapple powder. None of the treatment combinations influenced crude fibre, pH, total ash or titrable acidity. Fruit powders with resistant dextrin dried at 160oC had superior scores in sensory analysis. Good quality fruit powders produced at 160oC using each carrier, when subjected to a storage study for six months under four packaging atmospheres, microbial growth was totally absent. Refrigerated storage could maintain vitamin C, β-carotene, moisture content, titrable acidity, total phenol and high sensory acceptability of fruit powders. Cost of production of fruit powders with carrier resistant dextrin was comparatively less and highest consumer preference was for pineapple powder. Instant juice powders of cashew apple, pineapple and their equal blend produced by spray drying at 160oC with resistant dextrin as carrier in 40:60 juice solid to carrier ratio had optimum physical, chemical, nutritional and sensory qualities with six month shelf stability under refrigeration. Further studies to improve shelf life of the product in ambient temperature, exploration on nutraceutical functions and development of spray drier for small scale industries with higher efficiency will be highly beneficial for improving cost effectiveness and commercialization of the technology.ThesisItem Open Access Diversity mapping and characterization of landraces of mango (Mangifera indica.L)(Department of Pomolgy and Floriculture, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2016) Harikumar, V; KAU; Parameswaran, N KThe project entitled “Diversity mapping and characterization of landraces of mango [Mangifera indica. L]” was undertaken at Pazhayannur region of Thrissur district of Kerala and under the department of Pomology and Floriculture, College of Horticulture,Vellanikkara, KAU during November 2012 to March, 2016. Selection of Pazhayannur region as the site of the present studies was based on a primary assessment conducted in this region earlier. The present investigations broadly envisaged the diversity mapping and digitization of mango LRs of this region, their characterisation, preparation of diversity registers and descriptors, documentation of associated indigenous traditional knowledge (ITK) and evolving appropriate integrated conservation and improvement strategies for the rare LRs spotted during the project implementation. Snow ball sampling method was used for locating the seedling mango LRs in different villages of the region and their spatial distribution was depicted through a series of GIS maps as per the geo co-ordinate readings. A total of 100 LRs could be thus located in the region and could be grouped in five GIS maps primarily based on their geographical position and further into the different rural hamlets of the major villages of the study site. A homestead based land use practice was largely noted in all these villages surveyed with many annual and perennial species planted and maintained around the homesteads where mango diversity confining to the homestead peripheries either as single plant or a component of poly crop system. The morphological characterization was carried out as per the standard descriptor for mango by IPGRI (2006) for different tree, leaf, inflorescence, fruit and biochemical parameters. Age of the trees surveyed spanned over a range of less than 20 years to more than 100 years and the trees were erect, spreading or drooping in their growth habit. A wide variation among the young leaves was noted with respect to the colour and it varied from light green, light green with brownish tinge, light brick red, reddish brown, and deep coppery tan. Flowering was noted from November to March making into early (November to December), midseason (January to February) and late season (from March) as noted among the different accessions and two intermediate periods between the seasons. Regular bearing was predominantly noticed in majority of the accessions but for few accessions which exhibited secondary/perpetual type of flowering. All most all the accessions produced terminal borne inflorescences but few accessions showed axillary and terminal emergence of inflorescence. The inflorescences were predominantly pyramidal in shape, followed by broadly pyramidal and conical in few. Inflorescence colour ranged from light green to crimson. Based on maturing period, the trees could be classified as early - if the fruits become mature for harvest by February, as intermediate - if ready for harvest by March to May, and as late - if ready by June. For pickling purpose, the stage for harvest varied from marble stage (for Kadu/tender manga pickle), to pre-mature (three-fourth) mature stage for Chethu manga. Fruit shapes varied from round, elliptic, obovoid, ovoid and oblong. Fruit colour was distinct and as a rare occurrence brownish colouration of the skin could also be noted in one of the accessions. Fruit weight varied from 44 g. to 634.82 g., pulp weight from 19.80 g to 419.50 g. and the thickness of the skin from 0.55 mm to 4.5 mm. With respect to the pulp colour, a great variation was observable viz., light yellow, yellow, yellow orange, light orange, dark orange, and greenish yellow. Presence of fibre in the fruit pulp was a unique feature of all the accessions. Pulp aroma was mild, intermediate or strong. Turpentine flavour which interferes with the edible quality of fruit was also noted in few . TSS of the ripe fruits varied from 7.6 to 23.65°brix and acidity from 0.1 to 1.49 percent. Polyembryony was also notable in few accessions with emerging seedlings per stone ranging from two to four. Principal component analysis and cluster analysis was carried out culminating in constructing a mathematical base for the entire survey. Four cell participatory analysis (FCA) conducted at the different villages, enabled the confirmatory identification of the common and rare mango LRs of thevillages primarily and the region as a whole. Overall diversity assessment clearly noted the predominance of the type Moovandan throughout the entire Pazhayannur region. Among the different villages maximum number of rare landraces could be spotted in Elanad village (39) followed by Vennur (19), Pazhayannur (19) and Vadakkethara (12). Accessions spotted from the extended locations of the survey (Tiruvilwamala and Panjal) were also added in to the rare group. ITK associated with these mango LRs with special reference to the conventional and traditional processing of fruits were also documented. A conceptual model for in situ conservation of the spotted LRs for the region could also worked out finally and a comprehensive village diversity register of mango LRs of the region in the specified format was prepared as a material for future reference. Initiatives were also taken up for the ex situ conservation of some rare mango LRs spotted. Scion material of rare LRs was collected and grafted plants prepared for planting in the mango gene sanctuary maintained by the department. Crossing and hybridization were also taken up during the project period involving selected LRs of the region as male parents with Moovandan and Neelum types maintained at the orchard of the college as female parents.ThesisItem Open Access Nutrient Management practices for Heliconia under open condition and as intercrop in coconut garden(Department of Pomology and Floriculture, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2013) Nihad, K; KAU; Sheela, V LHeliconias (Heliconia spp.) are attractive tropical plants grown for their beautiful, brilliant, long lasting colorful inflorescences. Among the Heliconias, Heliconia stricta cv. Iris Red is a commercial variety with high market value due to its unique crimson coloured bracts with a definite shape. They grow well in soils rich in organic matter with full sunlight to 40% shade, but little is known about its nutrient management practices when grown under monocropped or intercropped conditions especially in low fertile soils with less water holding capacity. Hence two experiments on Heliconia stricta cv. Iris Red as intercrop in coconut garden (Experiment I) and as monocrop in open condition (Experiment II) were laid out in RBD for a period of two years during 2010- 2012 with five treatments and four replications in Central Plantation Crops Research Institute (Regional Station), Kayamkulam, Kerala State. The present investigation was to standardize a manurial schedule for enhancing production and quality of Heliconia flowers when grown under same nutrient management practice in two cropping systems. This also aimed at comparing the quality and vase life of flowers grown under different conditions and thereby standardizing an integrated nutrient recommendation suitable for each system of cropping. In both the experiments growth parameters such as plant height, number of suckers and number of leaves were significantly higher in treatment supplied with 5 g NPK @ 13:5:13kg/ha (T2 ) which was on par with the treatment supplied with Vermicompost (VC) @ 200g/plant +Neemcake (NC) @ 100g/plant (T3). The values were higher for plants grown under coconut canopy than in open condition. The physiological characters like leaf area, LAI, specific leaf area, leaf area duration and leaf area density were also higher in T3 and T2 under both the systems of cropping. All the parameters except leaf area density were higher in plants under intercropped condition. In experiment I and II, treatment T3 took the lowest number of days for first flowering (172.8 and 280.3 respectively) whereas T2 took the longest time to start flowering (295 and 362.5 days respectively). There was no significant difference among the treatments in time taken for fifty percent flowering under intercropped condition, whereas in open condition, T2 plants took the longest (459.8 days) and T3 plants the shortest (370.0days) duration .to attain fifty percent flowering. The stages from fully emerged or just opened (Stage II ) to complete unfurling of bracts (Stage III) and the life of fully opened flower in plant (Stage III to IV) was more in intercropped condition (23.3 to 38.5 days) than in monocropped condition (17.05 days to 27.3 days).In both the experiments, T3 recorded the highest longivity followed by T2. The inflorescence characters such as length, number of bracts, stem length and stem diameter were more under intercropped condition. Superior quality flowers were produced in T3 under both the systems of planting. In intercropped condition T2 and T5 (VC @ 100g/plant +NC @ 50g/plant + 2.5 g NPK @ 13:5:13kg/ha) plants also produced such flowers. The fresh weight of fully opened inflorescence was significantly higher in T3 and T5 under both the systems of planting. In the visual appeal test, the total score for the inflorescences produced in the intercropped area was higher and T3 scored the highest value under both the experiments. T3 plants recorded the highest wax, caroteniod content, carotenoid- chlorophyll ratio and vase life(12.9 days and 10.5 days respectively ) in experiment I and II. The highest leaf chlorophyll and wax content was recorded in T3 plants under both the systems of planting. The leaf nutrient content such as N, P, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn and Zn was the highest in T3 plants under both systems of cropping condition. The plant uptake of N and P was the highest in T2 plots of the intercropped area, whereas, T4 recorded the highest uptake in open condition. T2 recorded the highest K uptake in both the experiments. The lowest N and K uptake was in T3 plots. The treatment supplied with VC and NC (T3) recorded significantly higher P, Ca, Mg and Fe content of soil in both the systems of planting. In both the experiments, T2 recorded significantly higher K values (20.6ppm and 20.0ppm respectively). In both the experiments, T3 produced the highest number of marketable flowers and suckers. Among the treatments T5 recorded the highest land equivalent ratio (1.49) followed by T3 (1.43), T2 and T4 (1.4) and T1 (1.39). The nutrient balance sheet for N, P and K was higher in T3 under both the cropping situations. In general, the nutrient balance for P and K was more in monocropped condition. Growing Heliconia as an intercrop had a positive impact on coconut yield and yield parameters during the two seasons of growth period June and December (2010-2011). The leaf nutrient content of coconut was found to increase gradually during the period of observations. The present study revealed that Heliconia stricta cv. Iris Red is a potential intercrop in coconut gardens. The plants had a superior vegetative growth and inflorescence production in sandy soils with low nutrient and water holding capacity by supplying cowdung @ 1kg/plant + bonemeal @250 g/plant basally and topdressing equal doses of Vermicompost (VC) @ 200g/plant +Neemcake (NC) @ 100g/plant (T3 ) at quarterly intervals from three months after planting under both the conditions of cropping system. This was followed by the treatment supplying cowdung @ 1kg/plant + bonemeal @250 g/plant basally and topdressing same doses of VC @ 100g/plant +NC @ 50g/plant + 13:5:13NPK@2.5 g/plant (T5 ). .
