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Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur
The history of agricultural education in Kerala can be traced back to the year 1896 when a scheme was evolved in the erstwhile Travancore State to train a few young men in scientific agriculture at the Demonstration Farm, Karamana, Thiruvananthapuram, presently, the Cropping Systems Research Centre under Kerala Agricultural University. Agriculture was introduced as an optional subject in the middle school classes in the State in 1922 when an Agricultural Middle School was started at Aluva, Ernakulam District. The popularity and usefulness of this school led to the starting of similar institutions at Kottarakkara and Konni in 1928 and 1931 respectively.
Agriculture was later introduced as an optional subject for Intermediate Course in 1953. In 1955, the erstwhile Government of Travancore-Cochin started the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, Thiruvananthapuram and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences at Mannuthy, Thrissur for imparting higher education in agricultural and veterinary sciences, respectively. These institutions were brought under the direct administrative control of the Department of Agriculture and the Department of Animal Husbandry, respectively. With the formation of Kerala State in 1956, these two colleges were affiliated to the University of Kerala. The post-graduate programmes leading to M.Sc. (Ag), M.V.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees were started in 1961, 1962 and 1965 respectively.
On the recommendation of the Second National Education Commission (1964-66) headed by Dr. D.S. Kothari, the then Chairman of the University Grants Commission, one Agricultural University in each State was established. The State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) were established in India as an integral part of the National Agricultural Research System to give the much needed impetus to Agriculture Education and Research in the Country. As a result the Kerala Agricultural University (KAU) was established on 24th February 1971 by virtue of the Act 33 of 1971 and started functioning on 1st February 1972. The Kerala Agricultural University is the 15th in the series of the SAUs.
In accordance with the provisions of KAU Act of 1971, the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, were brought under the Kerala Agricultural University. In addition, twenty one agricultural and animal husbandry research stations were also transferred to the KAU for taking up research and extension programmes on various crops, animals, birds, etc.
During 2011, Kerala Agricultural University was trifurcated into Kerala Veterinary and Animal Sciences University (KVASU), Kerala University of Fisheries and Ocean Studies (KUFOS) and Kerala Agricultural University (KAU).
Now the University has seven colleges (four Agriculture, one Agricultural Engineering, one Forestry, one Co-operation Banking & Management), six RARSs, seven KVKs, 15 Research Stations and 16 Research and Extension Units under the faculties of Agriculture, Agricultural Engineering and Forestry. In addition, one Academy on Climate Change Adaptation and one Institute of Agricultural Technology offering M.Sc. (Integrated) Climate Change Adaptation and Diploma in Agricultural Sciences respectively are also functioning in Kerala Agricultural University.
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ThesisItem Open Access Homeostatic analysis of components of genetic variance and inheritance of fruit colour, fruit shape and bitterness in bitter gourd (Momordica charantia L.)(Department of Olericulture, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 1989) Abdul Vahab, M; KAU; Gopalakrishnan, P KThesisItem Open Access In vitro studies on the propagation of cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum maton)(Department of Plantation Crops and Spices, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 1989) Reghunath, B R; KAU; Gopalakrishnan, P KThesisItem Open Access Process optimisation and quality evaluation of Jackfruit based probiotic food products(Department of Community Science, College of Horticulture,Vellanikkara, 2020) Remya, P R; KAU; Sharon, C LThe concept of food has changed from its basic definition of satisfying hunger and nourishing the body, to health maintenance and prevention of diseases. Probiotics are one among such foods. The incorporation of probiotics to locally available foods may help to develop its nutritional profile and therapeutic value. Hence, the study entitled “Process optimisation and quality evaluation of jackfruit based probiotic food products” was undertaken with the objective of standardising probiotic food mixtures with raw jackfruit flour, instant shake mixes with the probiotic food mixture, probiotic yoghurt with ripe jackfruit and also to evaluate the nutritional, organoleptic and shelf life qualities of these developed food products. Probiotic food mixtures were developed with the incorporation of raw jackfruit flour, defatted soya flour, jackfruit seed flour, tomato and papaya in various proportions. The proportion of ingredients were standardised with four sets of treatments and from each set, one food mixture with maximum organoleptic scores were selected. The experiment was repeated for both koozha and varikka varieties. The food mixture containing 60 per cent raw jackfruit flour was selected from set 1 and 2 whereas food mixture containing 50 per cent raw jackfruit flour and 20 per cent jackfruit seed flour was selected from set 3 and 4. For all the selected food mixtures, the conditions were optimised for attaining the maximum viable count of L. acidophilus. Fifty grams of the food mixture at pH 4.5 fermented with 300 μl of inoculum for 24 hours at 370C gave the maximum viable count of L. acidophilus ranging from 10.90 to 10.94 log cfu/g. The selected food mixtures from each set along with their respective unfermented samples were freeze dried and packed in laminated polyethylene pouches and kept for storage studies under ambient conditions for a period of six months. Titratable acidity (2.32 to 2.96 %), protein (22.84 to 25.16 g/100g), thiamine (0.064 to 0.090 μg/100g), riboflavin (0.048 to 0.088 μg/100g), in vitro starch digestibility (79.89 to 81.94 %) and in vitro protein digestibility (77.49 to 83.83 %) were significantly higher in the fermented food mixtures when compared with the unfermented samples. The probiotic count of the food mixtures ranged from 10.85 to 10.90 log cfu/g. Based on the nutritive, sensory and probiotic viability, the food mixtures with 50 per cent raw jackfruit flour, 20 per cent defatted soya flour, 20 per cent jackfruit seed flour and 10 per cent tomato pulp were selected from both koozha and varikka varieties for further analysis. Glycemic index of the food mixtures were assessed and a low glycemic index of 45.35 for koozha and 47.99 for varikka was obtained. Using the best probiotic food mixture one each from koozha and varikka varieties, two instant shake mixes were prepared. The developed shake mixes contain 50 per cent fermented food mixtures along with other ingredients. The shake mixes were packed in laminated polyethylene pouches for a period of two months and the quality (nutritional, organoleptic and shelf life) aspects were analysed at 15 days interval. Both the shake mixes were nutritionally and organoleptically acceptable without the presence of fungi, yeast and insect infestation throughout the storage period. The probiotic count of the developed instant shake mixes varied from 10.14 to 10.19 log cfu/g. Jackfruit incorporated probiotic yoghurts were standardized and the yoghurt with 30 per cent jackfruit pulp was found to be the most acceptable. Yoghurts were prepared using homogenized milk (HM), skimmed milk (SM) and a combination of both. The conditions for the growth of L.acidophilus were optimised for all the selected yoghurts. Twenty five grams of the yoghurt, fermented with 100 μl of inoculum at 38 0C gave the maximum total viable count of L.acidophilus ranging from 10.84 to 10.92 log cfu/g. The prepared yoghurts were kept under refrigeration for a period of 15 days for quality evaluation. The probiotic yoghurts were found to be acceptable with a mean score of more than seven even at the 15th day of storage and the probiotic viability ranged from 10.62 to 10.79 log cfu/g. The cost of probiotic fermented food mixture was Rs. 260.31 /100g, instant shake mix was Rs. 138.54 /100g and that of probiotic yoghurt was Rs. 18.56-19.56 /100 ml. The study revealed that jackfruit can be a suitable substrate for probiotic fermentation and the probiotic food mixtures, instant shake mixes and probiotic yoghurt can be successfully developed. Further research can be done for the development of innovative probiotic products from jackfruit.ThesisItem Unknown Process optimisation and quality evaluation of cocoa based chocolates(Department of Community Science, College of Horticulture,Vellanikkara, 2019) Shahanas, E; KAU; Seeja, Thomachan PanjikkaranCocoa (Theobroma cacao) is a supporting crop to farmers due to its remunerative income, which forms the basis for one of the world’s most popular food products chocolate. The quality of final product depends upon the fermented dried beans. High free fatty acid content is a serious quality defect and reduces the economic value of the cocoa beans. Recently, the cocoa trade has assumed a more scientific position and a lot of emphasis are placed on the content of free fatty acid. A reduction in the free fatty acids level will definitely have a positive impact. As such there is a need for the farmers to carry more intensive research and to develop and technology for the standardisation of free fatty acid content in the processing stages of cocoa in both primary and secondary processing. The present study was undertaken to develop protocol for primary processing of cocoa beans based on free fatty acid content (<1.75 %), to standardise the time and temperature of chocolate making using machine and to evaluate the quality attributes and shelf life of the products. Cocoa fermentation was carried out with three different types of fermentation methods like basket, heap and sack method for the periods of 5, 6 and 7 days of fermentation with nine different treatments. The physico-chemical qualities of fermented cocoa beans were evaluated. The highest (84.99%) fermentation index or cut test score was recorded in heap method at seventh day of fermentation (T6). The highest fermentation bean recovery of 84.33% was noticed in treatment T4 in heap method at fifth day of fermentation. The moisture content vary from 50.40 %, 53.67% and 54.40% to 39.80%, 37.83% and 39.43% from initial to seventh day of fermentation in sack, heap and basket method respectively. The pH of fermented beans varied from 6.11 to 4.26 in all methods. Among the fermentation methods the maximum fat content was in heap method from initial 42.66% to 32.89%. The lipase activity, decreased with fermentation periods in all three fermentation methods. In heap method it varied from 0.0022 to 0.0005. The heap method with seven days of fermentation were selected to sun drying and oven drying based on the lowest free fatty acid content (0.80%). The bean recovery of fermented dried beans was high (41.00 %) in sun dried cocoa beans as compared to oven dried beans (40.12 %). The free fatty acid content (1.26 %) in sun dried cocoa beans was less compared to 1.47% in T2 (oven dried beans). The moisture content (3.76%) and lipase activity (0.0018μ eq) was less but, the fat content and pH was high in sun dried beans. The sun drying proved to be adaptive as free fatty acid content was lower than oven dried beans and were below the cut off value of 1.75%. The sun dried beans were stored in gunny bags (control), polythene covers and plastic containers under ambient condition for a period of six months and the physico-chemical qualities of stored cocoa beans were done initially and at an interval of one month for a duration of six months. The highest bean recovery (98%) and least moisture content (4.22 to 4.52) was in cocoa beans stored in plastic container at the end of sixth month of storage. The lowest free fatty acid content of 1.68% was in cocoa beans stored in plastic container at sixth month after storage. The stored cocoa beans in plastic container were divided into two lots, one lot was used as such and the second lot was subjected to alkalisation. The chocolates was prepared with alkalised and non alkalised cocoa beans in tempering and conching machine for different time periods of 7, 9 and 11 hours at a temperature of 600C and 700. After the preparation of different types of alkalised and non alkalised chocolates in tempering and conching machine, chocolates were subjected to analysis of physico-chemical qualities, organoleptic evaluation and for enumeration of microflora. The treatment T6 (Chocolate prepared at 700C for 11 hours) and T12 (700C for 11hours) had the lowest free fatty acid content of 1.67% and 1.68% and maximum score for overall acceptability (8.89 and 8,87). Chocolates prepared at 700C for 11 hours from alkalised and non alkalised beans were blended with dehydrated grapes, dehydrated dates, osmodehydrated jackfruit, osmodehydrated pineapple, badam, cashew nut, powdered dehydrated mint leaves and white pepper powder. From the, organoleptic evaluation of different treatments, the best rated treatments from alkalised chocolates were T3 (95 % alkalised chocolates +5% osmodehydrated jack fruit), T6 (95 % alkalised chocolates +5% badam) and T8 (95 % alkalised chocolates +5% white pepper) and from non alkalised chocolates the treatments T11 (95 % non alkalised chocolates +5% osmodehydrated jack fruit), T14 (chocolate blended with 95 % non alkalised chocolates and 5% badam) and T16 (95 % non alkalised chocolates and 5% white pepper powder) were selected, packed in aluminium foil and stored in refrigerator for six months. Initially the lowest hardness of 74.41N and 76.71N was recorded in controls (T0 - AC) and (T0 – NAC. The maximum energy content of 580.15Kcal was found in treatment T5 (95 % NAC+5% B). Initially the maximum protein content (7.74 g/100g) was noticed in treatment T2 (95 % AC+5% B) and T5 (95 % NAC+5% B). The highest polyphenol content ranging from 0.23g/100g to 0.19g/100g was seen in T0 (100% NAC) throughout the storage periods. A reduction in mineral contents like calcium, phosphorus and iron content was observed in all treatments and at the end of sixth month calcium content varied from 0.39g/100g to 0.63g/100g. An increase in lipase activity and free fatty acid content of blended chocolates was recorded during storage and FFA was within 1.75% up to fourth month of storage. Based on organoleptic score, the treatment T2 (95 % AC+5% B) attained the highest rank. The blended chocolates were evaluated for the presence of bacteria, yeast and mould initially and monthly intervals for a period of six months, At the end of sixth month of storage the highest bacterial count of 2.0 x 104 cfu/g was found and during sixth month of storage. The cost for blended chocolates was varied from Rs.46.54 to Rs.50.62 / 40 g of chocolate bar. The cost of the chocolates prepared in the present study was lesser as compared to the commercial chocolates. The present study found that good quality, nutritious and healthy blended chocolates using cocoa could be prepared without adding any preservatives. The blended chocolates contain treasure of nutrients and bioactive compounds polyphenol which is essential for the growth and development of children and also give several health benefits.ThesisItem Open Access Morpho-Molecular charaterisation of intergeneric hybrids of Ascocentrum(Department of Floriculture and Landscaping, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2019) Katare Renuka, Shamrao; KAU; Sobhana, A.Morpho-molecular characterisation intergeneric hybrids of Ascocentrum was conducted at the Department of Floriculture and landscaping, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, during 2016-19 with the objective of characterising based on morphological and molecular analysis for commercial exploitation and compatibility assessment. Thirty varieties selected for the morphological characterisation. In quantitative characters Mok. Omayaiy Yellow showed highest plant height, internodal length and leaf breadth throughout the study period. Plant spread, leaf length and leaf area were highest in Kag. Youthong Beauty. Mok. Sayan × Ascda. Doung Porn was observed with highest shoot girth, shoot diameter and number of leaves. Ascda. Yip Sum Wah × V. JVB showed maximum number of roots, Mok. Khaw Phiak Suan × Ascda. Jiraprapa was observed with the highest root length and Mok. Chao Praya Sunset Yellow Spot with the highest root girth. Vasco. Aroonsri Beauty had the least values in all vegetative characters throughout the study period including plant height, spread, internodal length, shoot, leaf and root characters except the number of leaves which was the least in Mok. Khaw Phiak Suan × Ascda. Jiraprapa. Variety Vasco. Aroonsri Beauty also produced the maximum number of florets/spike and had the shortest internodal length. Cluster analysis with 14 different floral characters revealed 12 clusters at 75 per cent similarity. The highest inter-cluster distance was observed in cluster 6 and cluster 10. Cluster 6, which included Ascda. Sirichi Fragrance and Vasco Blue Bay White was found to have the lowest internodal length with the highest value LVII for number of florets per spike, also observed to have lower flower length and flower width. Cluster 10 was found to have the high mean values for spike length, flower length and flower width. In qualitative characters, based on growth habit, two types were found among the varieties viz., hanging and prostrate nature of growth. Leaf texture was found smooth and rigid with entire leaf margin. Leaf apex was acute in Vasco. Aroonsri Beauty and Ascda. Yip Sum Wah × V. JVB and was emarginated in rest of the hybrids. Wide variation was found among the flower colour, colour pattern, nature of petals and lip. Regarding post harvest traits, variety Mok. Omayaiy Yellow recorded highest fresh weight of spike and physiogical loss in weight. Whereas, variety Kag. Youthong Beauty took maximum days to start wilting of a floret. Mok. Chark Kuan Pink was observed to have longest vase life, spike longevity and highest water uptake. In visual evaluation the highest total mean score for the spike to use as a cut flower was observed in Mok. Omayaiy Yellow (54.6 out of 60), while the lowest was observed in Vasco. Blue Bay White. The highest mean score was obtained in Vasco. Pine River Pink (53.83) for plants for the indoor display. In pollen studies Ascda. Sirichi Fragrance and Mok. Sayan × Ascda. Doung Porn showed the highest pollen fertility and germination and these were selected as two male parents for further cross compatibility check. Vasco. Aroonsri Beauty and Kag. Youthong Beauty were found self-incompatible as well as cross incompatible with both the male patents and Vasco. Pine River Blue was found cross incompatible with Mok. Sayan. × Ascda. Doung Porn whereas, the rest of the varieties were found cross-compatible with both the male parents. LVIII Among the 21 SSR primers, ten generated polymorphic patterns. The number of amplicons detected varied from two to seven. The highest number of alleles was found in FJ539054, FJ539061 and JN375718. Primers DQ494847 (3) observed to have less number of amplicons. The PIC value ranged from 0.095 to 0.800.. One unique band was produced by JN375713 and FJ539050 primers in Kag. Samrong and Vasco. Aroonsri Beauty, respectively. The least Jaccard’s similarity value (0.05) was observed between Kag. Samrong and Ascda. Suksamran Sunlight, Ascda. Yip Sum Wah × V. Josephine Van Brero, Vasco. Aroonsri Beauty. The UPGMA clustering algorithm grouped the varieties into two main clusters. The variety Kag. Samrong clustered separately from all other members, whereas, other members were grouped in one cluster. At 50 per cent level of similarity, the hybrids grouped into 13 clusters. Out of 29 ISSR primers used, 20 showed amplification in all hybrids with polymorphic bands. ISSR primer (GACAC) 4 generated 11 amplicons, whereas, ISSR 901 generated 31 amplicons. ISSR primer (GACAC) 4 had lowest PIC value, and UBC810, the highest PIC value (0.926). The least Jaccard’s similarity value (0.03) was observed between Vasco. Blue Bay White and Mok. Khaw Phiak Suan × Ascda. Bicentennial Yellow Spot, which indicates that these hybrids are dissimilar to each other. The highest Jaccard’s similarity value was observed between Mok. Khaw Phiak Suan × Ascda. Bicentennial Yellow Spot and Mok. Chao Praya Sunset Yellow Spot. A UPGMA-based dendrogram separated the 20 hybrids of Ascocentrum orchids into two main clusters, each with 10 members. At 30 per cent level of similarity, all the 20 hybrids grouped into 14 different clusters. Six clusters were observed with two members each.ThesisItem Open Access Investigations on yellowing of black pepper (piper nigrum L.)(Department of Plantation Crops and Spices, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2019) Maddirala Surendra, Babu; KAU; Sujatha, V SBlack pepper, popularly known as King of Spices or Black gold is one of the important and earliest known spices produced and exported from India. After foot rot disease, the major constraint in black pepper cultivation is the incidence of yellowing, leading to decline in production year after year. Yellowing is reported to be caused by many abiotic and biotic factors. Symptomatological studies on yellowing showed that per cent severity of yellowing was significantly higher during October-November and was on par during summer. During July-August, yellowing was significantly low. There was no definite pattern in the development and spread of the disease. In case of mild yellowing, there was recovery during July-August. Yellowing gradually increased and severely affected plants failed to recover. There was no flushing or flowering in plants. Such plants died in 2-3 years. All varieties studied were found to be susceptible to yellowing. Yellowing was observed either at the top of pepper column or (and) the bottom of the column. Sometimes yellowing appeared in a group of leaves together. In some aged plants older leaves at terminal portion of plant were yellow. In some leaves the base of lamina near petiole was yellow. This yellowing faded to tip of lamina and margins. Yield and yield contributing characters in healthy, apparently healthy and yellowing affected black pepper plants showed that all the characters of healthy plants showed a higher positive value compared to yellowing affected plants. In the case of yield per plant, there was significant reduction in yield in yellowing affected plants compared to healthy in all varieties except Vijay. In the study on rhizosphere soil nutrient status there was no apparent role of soil pH, OC, N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S, Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu and B in causing yellowing in the experimental plots in the present study. All the nutrient elements were in the optimum or high range. There was no significant difference among yellowing affected, apparently healthy and healthy plants in case of N and S where DRIS norms were not available. Among the rhizosphere soil parameters, pH, EC and organic carbon were significantly and positively correlated with yellowing. There was no significant correlation of N, P, Mg, S, Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu and B content of rhizosphere soil with yellowing in black pepper. K, Ca and Al content of rhizosphere soils showed significant negative correlation with yellowing. Analysis of nutrient status in the plant tissues of yellowing affected, apparently healthy and healthy plants based on DRIS norms suggested by Hamza et al. (2007) indicated that there was deficiency of N in the yellowing affected plants, K content and S content was also low in yellowing affected plants, all other nutrients were not deficient in the yellowing affected plants. Study on soil micro flora (cfu g-1) showed that mean value of fungal population was significantly highest (18.78 ×10 3cfu g-1) in rhizosphere soils of healthy plants compared to apparently healthy and yellowing affected plants. Healthy plants showed significantly low (27.55 ×10 3cfu g-1) population count of actinomycetes in the rhizosphere soil, whereas apparently healthy and yellowing affected plants were statistically on par. Yellowing affected plants showed significantly highest population count of bacteria (25.53 ×10 8cfu g-1) followed by apparently healthy. Healthy plants showed significantly lowest bacterial population. No soil borne pathogens including Phytophthora, Rhizoctonia or Fusarium was found associated with yellowing Nematode population in the rhizosphere soils of healthy plants was significantly lowest compared to apparently healthy and yellowing affected plants. Yellowing affected plants showed significantly highest population of Meloidogyne incognita, Radopholus similis, Pratylenchus sp, Helicotylenchus sp, Dorylaimid sp, and Trophotylenchulus sp, in the rhizosphere soil when compared with apparently healthy and healthy plants. In case of root, number of galls on the roots was significantly highest in yellowing affected plants. Considering different categories of nematodes, Meloidogyne incognita followed by Radopholus similis were predominant in the roots of yellowing affected plants. In roots as well as rhizospere soil, significantly highest population of nematodes was observed during October – November followed by February – March. Examination of roots of experimental plants and rhizosphere soil did not show the presence of root mealy bugs or any other insect, which can cause damage to root or yellowing in the plant. There was significant positive correlation of yellowing with maximum temperature. However minimum temperature showed significant negative correlation with yellowing. Relative humidity and rainfall also were significantly and negatively correlated with yellowing. A definite association of plant parasitic nematodes was seen in the plants as well as rhizosphere soils of yellowing affected plants in the present study. Meloidogyne incognita followed by Radopholous similis population was significantly highest in yellowing affected plants indicating their role clearly in causing yellowing. In the present study on the analysis of different factors like soil nutrients, plant pathogenic micro-organisms, soil borne insects, nematodes etc, in causing yellowing gives a clear indication of role of nematodes in causing yellowing in black pepper in the experimental plot in Thrissur district. Even though the nutrient status in the rhizosphere soil of experimental plants was satisfactory, absorption of nutrients was low due to damage of roots caused by nematodes. There was deficiency of nitrogen and low potassium and sulphur levels in the leaves of yellowing affected plants. The yellowing expressed must be due to multiple factors and combined effect of multiple nutrient deficiencies in plant tissue and damage due to nematodesThesisItem Open Access Performance analysis of medicinal kaempferia species(Department of Plantation Crops and Spices, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2019) Akoijam Ranjita, Devi; KAU; Mini Raj, NThe medicinal Kaempferia species are a good source of valuable bioactive compounds. Kaempferia rotunda is widely used in the ancient systems of medicine in India and Indonesia. Kaempferia parviflora, popularly known as black ginger or Thai ginseng, has potential for great exploitation on commercial basis. Rhizomes of K. parviflora are used as aphrodisiac in traditional medicine in Thailand. The present study was undertaken at Department of Plantation crops and Spices, Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur to evaluate the medicinal Kaempferia species in terms of morphology, anatomy, floral biology, yield, medicinal as well as pharmacological properties. A total of 18 genotypes belonging to three different species of Kaempferia formed the material for the study. Kaempferia galanga was taken as a reference species. The morphological evaluation was done consecutively for two years (2017-18 and 2018-19) based on qualitative and quantitative parameters. In K. rotunda, there was not much variation in qualitative parameters while the quantitative parameters exhibited tremendous variation among the 13 genotypes evaluated. The fresh rhizome yield ranged from 15.21 to 52.44 g/plant and dry yield of rhizome ranged from 5.00 to 17.73 g/plant. The Manipur collection MCR-6 performed best with the highest fresh as well as dry rhizome yield of 52.44 g and 17.73 g respectively followed by KCR-5 from Kerala. In K. parviflora also, the qualitative parameters did not show much variation whereas the quantitative characters exhibited significant variation among the genotypes. Significantly highest (114.60 g) fresh weight of rhizome was recorded by the genotype KCP-1. The Thailand collection KCP-1 was the best performer followed by BSI-1 from Shillong. The two genotypes of K. galanga evaluated in the study exhibited morphological variation in certain characters, however no significant variation was noticed for rhizome yield. The flowering was observed from May to November in K. parviflora, March to April in K. rotunda and June to July in K. galanga. In the floral biology studies, variation was noticed in floral parts including the pollen grains of the three species with respect to size and shape. The flowers were bisexual, complete, trimerous and zygomorphic in all the species. There were on an average 14.2 number of flowers per inflorescence in K. parviflora, 8.9 flowers in K. rotunda and 5.6 flowers per inflorescence in K. galanga. The time of anthesis was 5.00 am to 7.15 am in K. parviflora, 4.00 to 5.00 am in K. rotunda and in case of K. galanga, peak anthesis time was 4.00 to 5.00 am. The stigma was receptive upto eight hours after the anthesis in K. parviflora whereas K. rotunda and K. galanga remained receptive for 24 hours and nine hours respectively after anthesis. In the in vivo pollen germination studies, pollen germination was noticed only in K. parviflora and K. galanga. The seed set was observed only in K. parviflora. The vivipary was observed in K. parviflora and recalcitrance of the seed was confirmed, thus proving its viviparous nature. The viviparous plants were compared with rhizome borne plants. The number of leaves and tillers were more in viviparous plants when compared with normal plants but they took two years for appreciable yield. However, rhizome yield of viviparous plant was only 1/3rd of that in normal plants. In the anatomical studies, all the three species had collateral and closed type of vascular bundles in transverse section of leaves. The oil globules were present in the leaf lamina of K. galanga. Calcium oxalate crystals were present in the leaf epidermis of K. rotunda and leaf lamina in K. parviflora. Oil globules were abundant in the rhizome of K. rotunda and K. parviflora. Starch granules in rhizome and root tuber were concentrated near endodermal layer in all the species. The flavonoid vacuoles were abundantly present in the rhizome section of K. parviflora. In the biochemical studies, the volatile oil content in K. rotunda rhizome ranged from 0.057 to 3.17 per cent and oleoresin content was to the tune of 0.60 to 3.17 per cent. In K. parviflora, volatile oil content was negligible; oleoresin content ranged 2.03 to 4.17 per cent. The content of starch, total sugars and flavonoids were high in K. parviflora whereas total free amino acid content was high in K. rotunda rhizome. The profiling of volatile oil of K. rotunda by GCMSMS detected 22 compounds, that of K. parviflora indicated 34 compounds and in K. galanga there were 27 compounds. The profiling of ethanolic extract of K. rotunda rhizome by GCMS showed the presence of 18 compounds and that of K. parviflora, eight compounds. The ethanolic extract of rhizome of K. rotunda and K. parviflora were subjected to detailed in vitro as well as in vivo pharmacological studies at the Dept. of Pharmacology and Toxicology, KVASU, Mannuthy. The in vivo acute toxicity and immunomodulatory study was carried out in Swiss albino mice using cyclophosphamide as immunosuppressive agent. No acute toxicity was noticed in the ethanolic extract of both K. rotunda and K. parviflora. Both the species significantly increased the body weight, total leukocyte count, serum protein and decreased neutrophil count in normal as well as immunosuppressed animals. A significant stimulation of humoral and cellular immune response was indicated by increase in antibody titre, bone marrow cellularity and DTH reaction. Histopathology of spleen confirmed the high immunomodulatory effect of K. parviflora and moderate immunomodulatory activity of K. rotunda. In the DPPH assay, K. rotunda exhibited high antioxidant activity (IC50 131.15 μg/ml) while K. parviflora showed lower activity (IC50 198.68±7.62 μg/ml). Ethanolic rhizome extract of both the species exhibited anticancer property in breast cancer cell lines. Both K. rotunda and K. parviflora showed cytotoxicity against MDA MB231 and MCF-7 cell lines. IC50 for K. rotunda was 167.1±5.60 and 194.8±8.97 respectively for MCF-7 and MDA MB231 cell lines while for K. parviflora it was 143.03±2.70 and 126.35±2.53 respectively. The ethanolic extract of K. rotunda and K. parviflora exhibited appreciable antimicrobial activity on E. coli (11.13±0.16 mm, 12.32±0.12 mm), S. enterica (11.47±0.29 mm, 13.8±0.16 mm) and P. aeruginosa (11.52±0.38 mm, 11.17±0.31 mm) and showed potent activity on S. aureus (14.18±0.32 mm, 15.48±0.23 mm).ThesisItem Open Access Genetic analysis of inbreds, inbred crosses and hybrids of cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.)(Department of Plantation Crops and Spices, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2019) Vijayakumar Narayanapur, B; KAU; Suma, BThe genetic analysis of inbreds, inbred crosses and hybrid was carried out at College of Horticulture and Cocoa Research Centre (CRC), Vellanikkara, Thrissur. A total of 113 inbreds was evaluated for qualitative and quantitative characters. Cocoa is predominantly out breeding with highly complex genetic structure. The cross pollinating nature coupled with existence of self/cross incompatibility, poses much difficulty to the cocoa breeders. The hybrid progeny from the same cross exhibit high level of variability due to heterogeneous nature of the parents. This can be overcome to certain extent by using fully homozygous inbreds of diverse genotypes. The CRC succeeded in producing first ever fifth generation inbred and it was proved self incompatible. In this context, the present study was formulated to quantify the magnitude of inbreeding depression in yield and yield attributes in various self-generations and to establish a physiological relationship between the vigour of inbreds, inbred crosses and hybrids in the early stages of plant growth. The different pollination techniques were tested to overcome the self incompatibility and the extraction of proteins from self incompatible plants was attempted. Morphological characterization of 113 inbreds were carried out by recording qualitative characters such as pod shape, ridge colour, pod apex, pod basal constriction, pod rugosity and bean colour. High variability was observed for all qualitative characters except ridge colour. The pod and bean characterization for 21 characters expressed wide variation among the inbreds and within the inbreds of same genotype. Characterization of inbreds based on the biochemical parameters such as fat and phenol expressed wide variability. The inbreeding depression was estimated for 21 characters in 12 genotypes over generations. In S1 generation of M 18.7, the husk furrow thickness and number of flat beans expressed negative inbreeding depression, whereas the average yield per tree per year has shown a very meager inbreeding depression over the preceding generation. In S2 generation of M 18.7, pod value, conversion index and dry matter recovery have shown an inbreeding depression between 5 to 10 percent. Negative inbreeding depression was observed for husk ridge thickness, number of flat bean per pod, pod index, efficiency index and fat content. In S3 generation of M 18.7, maximum inbreeding depression was observed for wet bean weight per pod followed by pod length. In S4 generation of M 18.7, the highest inbreeding depression of 43.58 per cent was observed for number of pods/tree/year. In S1 generation of G II 7.4, positive inbreeding depression was observed for 10 characters out of 21. In S2 generation of G II 7.4, positive inbreeding depression was observed for 15 characters. Only seven characters expressed positive inbreeding depression in S3 generation of G II 7.4 genotype. In S5 generation inbred, the maximum inbreeding depression (63.95%) was observed for husk furrow thickness, followed by husk ridge thickness (49.02%), In S1 and S2 generation of H1 1.2, positive inbreeding was observed in 16 characters. In general, inbreeding depression was less for economic characters confirming that most of the characters are controlled by additive gene action and lethal gene canceled in heterozygous condition is less. In the comparative evaluation of inbreds, inbred crosses and hybrids, the inbreds were found superior over inbred crosses and hybrids for morphological characters such as plant height, collar girth, plant spread and leaf area. The inbreds also had maximum chlorophyll content, leaf nutrient status and relative water content. The superiority of inbreds was mainly attributed to the growing environmental condition with more of openness in the inbred plantation, which was confirmed with spherical densiometer, an instrument for measuring plantation overstory density. A total of nine techniques to overcome self incompatibility barriers such as bud pollination, surgical technique, intra-ovarian technique, salt spray (1% and 3%), high humidity, high temperature, Naphthalene Acetic Acid (100 and 200 ppm), gamma irradiation and flower organ extract were attempted from September 2016 to March 2017 and September 2017 to March 2018. In all the methods, the fruit set was not obtained except in surgical technique. The majority of self incompatible S3 and S5 inbreds set in to pods through surgical techniques. In the fluorescent microscopic study, the clear disintegration of pollen tube was observed in self incompatible flower in the style. Flowers from fifth generation cocoa inbreds were used for extraction of protein. All the available protein extraction methods were tried and the protein was quantified. In all the methods, the protein content was below 5μg per ml in the cocoa flower. The protein from cocoa leaf was extracted and quantified. In lysis buffer extraction with some modification, a protein content of 7 μg per ml was obtained. Faint bands were observed in SDS PAGE. The flower and leaf protein were subjected for LC Q ToF. The protein content obtained from the flower was insufficient to run LC Q ToF. A total of 87 proteins were found in cocoa leaf sample, of which, 85 proteins were similar to cocoa and two proteins were similar to forest coconut. From the above, it can be concluded that the genotypes in S5/S6 can be crossed to get highly heterotic hybrids. For extraction of protein from cocoa flowers, fine tuning of the available methods under ideal laboratory conditions must be employed. Molecular basis of self-incompatibility has to be studied in detail.ThesisItem Open Access Characteization and evaluation of nutmeg (Myristica fragrans Houtt.) accessions(Department of Plantation Crops and Spices, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2016) Vikram, H C; KAU; Mini Raj, NNutmeg (Myristica fragrans Houtt.) is an introduced crop to India. There exists tremendous variability in the nutmeg population in Kerala, which is the major nutmeg growing state in the country. Assessment of the existing variability is a prerequisite for taking up successful crop improvement programmes, which is very much limited in this tree spice. In this context, the present study entitled “Characterization and evaluation of nutmeg (Myristica fragrans Houtt.) accessions” was taken up exclusively with the specific objectives to characterize nutmeg accessions based on morphological, biochemical and molecular parameters so as to scale the variability in a multidimensional way. Select fifty nutmeg accessions from a core germplasm collected and maintained in a private plantation in the Chalakudy river basin, belonging to age of fifteen years, formed the material for the study. Among the select fifty accessions, forty two were females, four monoecious and four males. In the morphological characterization, 51 qualitative and 38 quantitative characters were recorded from two trees per accession. Biochemical characterization was done in the select seventeen distinct accessions. GC-MS profiling was done in kernel and mace oils. Biochemical constituents of fresh pericarp were estimated. Isozyme profiling was done for peroxidase and polyphenol oxidase enzymes. The molecular characterization was attempted with 21 RAPD and 12 ISSR primers after screening. A key for identification of an elite nutmeg tree was developed. A descriptor for nutmeg with a set of 51 qualitative and 38 quantitative parameters and descriptor states for each of these characters was developed as the first step. This is the first study of its kind to develop a minimal descriptor for nutmeg. The descriptor developed from the present study was simultaneously utilised for morphological characterization and evaluation of the accessions. Wide variability was noticed among the accessions for 47 out of 51 qualitative characters. Four characters viz., leaf margin, fruit pubescence, grooves on nut and nature of fruit dehiscence were noted as non variable characters and hence, these were not included for further analysis. Based on the qualitative characters, accessions were classified into 11 clusters at 66 per cent similarity level. Accessions differed significantly for all the quantitative characters except shelling percentage. Performance evaluation of the accessions brought out the superiority of accession 8, 9 and 22 for yield. The accessions showed high GCV, PCV, h2 and genetic gain for most of the characters. Number of fruits per tree, fruit set percentage, number of fruits per m2, fresh and dry weight of mace, mace volume as well ratio of nut to mace exhibited high genetic gain. Hence, selection programme based on these characters will be very effective in improving the base populations. Based on Mahalanobis D2 analysis, accessions were grouped into 10 clusters. Wide range of variation was observed in contents of volatile oil, oleoresin and fixed oil of kernel and mace. Based on these constituents accessions were grouped into 26 clusters, which indicated their distinct quality. Based on the results of the morphological characterization, seventeen distinct accessions were selected for further biochemical and molecular analysis. GC-MS analysis of kernel and mace oils exhibited 20 and 24 constituents respectively. Volatile oil composition exhibited wide variability for the major constituents viz., myristicin, elemicin, safrole and sabinene apart from the presence of some unique compounds. Grouping of the accessions was done based on the per cent content of these important compounds. Two accessions recorded high contents of both myristicin and elemicin whereas another two accessions were in the complimentary; belonging to low myristicin group. High sabinene combined with low myristicin was the intrinsic quality attribute of one of the accessions. Change, as well as addition/deletion of specific constituents was also noticed in the volatile oils after storage for one year. Accessions exhibited wide range of variation in the biochemical constituents of pericarp, a valuable information for the value addition of pericarp. Total phenol and tannins exhibited high variation. The accessions were ranked based on the content of biochemical constituents. Isozyme profiling using peroxidase enzyme produced four bands and that based on polyphenol oxidase exhibited three bands. Molecular markers could assess the variability among the accessions. The selected 21 RAPD primers produced a total of 164 amplicons of which 63.21 per cent were polymorphic. The 12 ISSR primers selected produced a total of 87 amplicons of which 69.44 per cent were polymorphic. Few unique bands were detected for specific characters. Inter cluster association of each of the qualitative clusters with other clustering patterns was worked out. The results indicated the differences as well as similarities of the qualitative clusters with other clustering patterns. Finally, key quantitative characters were identified based on their direct and indirect effect on yield as also economic importance. The statistical key thus developed using 13 key quantitative characters will serve as a preliminary tool for identification of an elite nutmeg tree.