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Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur
The history of agricultural education in Kerala can be traced back to the year 1896 when a scheme was evolved in the erstwhile Travancore State to train a few young men in scientific agriculture at the Demonstration Farm, Karamana, Thiruvananthapuram, presently, the Cropping Systems Research Centre under Kerala Agricultural University. Agriculture was introduced as an optional subject in the middle school classes in the State in 1922 when an Agricultural Middle School was started at Aluva, Ernakulam District. The popularity and usefulness of this school led to the starting of similar institutions at Kottarakkara and Konni in 1928 and 1931 respectively.
Agriculture was later introduced as an optional subject for Intermediate Course in 1953. In 1955, the erstwhile Government of Travancore-Cochin started the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, Thiruvananthapuram and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences at Mannuthy, Thrissur for imparting higher education in agricultural and veterinary sciences, respectively. These institutions were brought under the direct administrative control of the Department of Agriculture and the Department of Animal Husbandry, respectively. With the formation of Kerala State in 1956, these two colleges were affiliated to the University of Kerala. The post-graduate programmes leading to M.Sc. (Ag), M.V.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees were started in 1961, 1962 and 1965 respectively.
On the recommendation of the Second National Education Commission (1964-66) headed by Dr. D.S. Kothari, the then Chairman of the University Grants Commission, one Agricultural University in each State was established. The State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) were established in India as an integral part of the National Agricultural Research System to give the much needed impetus to Agriculture Education and Research in the Country. As a result the Kerala Agricultural University (KAU) was established on 24th February 1971 by virtue of the Act 33 of 1971 and started functioning on 1st February 1972. The Kerala Agricultural University is the 15th in the series of the SAUs.
In accordance with the provisions of KAU Act of 1971, the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, were brought under the Kerala Agricultural University. In addition, twenty one agricultural and animal husbandry research stations were also transferred to the KAU for taking up research and extension programmes on various crops, animals, birds, etc.
During 2011, Kerala Agricultural University was trifurcated into Kerala Veterinary and Animal Sciences University (KVASU), Kerala University of Fisheries and Ocean Studies (KUFOS) and Kerala Agricultural University (KAU).
Now the University has seven colleges (four Agriculture, one Agricultural Engineering, one Forestry, one Co-operation Banking & Management), six RARSs, seven KVKs, 15 Research Stations and 16 Research and Extension Units under the faculties of Agriculture, Agricultural Engineering and Forestry. In addition, one Academy on Climate Change Adaptation and one Institute of Agricultural Technology offering M.Sc. (Integrated) Climate Change Adaptation and Diploma in Agricultural Sciences respectively are also functioning in Kerala Agricultural University.
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ThesisItem Open Access Effect of planting date, weight of rhizome and spacing on the growth, yield and quality constituents on turmeric (Curcuma longa L)(Department of Horticulture (Plantation Crops & Spices), College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 1983) Chatterjee, R K; KAU; Mohanakumaran, NThesisItem Open Access Selection efficiency and genetic and biochemical bases of resistance to bacterial wilt in tomato(Department of Olericulture, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 1985) Rajan, S; KAU; Peter, K VBacterial wilt (Pseudomona solanacearum E.F. Smith) is a major disease of tomato. Attempts were made to improve a reportedly resistant line CL 32d-0-1-19 GS for higher fruit weight and better plant type through four selection methods – mass, pureline, single seed descent and bulk. Genetic and biochemical bases of resistance were also studied. Resistance of the evolved line was tested in vivo and in vitro. Mass, pureline and SSD methods of selection were effective to improve fruits/plant, locules/fruit, yield/plant and fruit weight. SSD method resulted in higher realized genetic gain for fruits/plant (30.97) locules/fruit (0.5) and yield/plant (1.05 kg). Higher genetic advance and high realized heritability were recorded for days to first harvest in SSD selections. Mass selection had higher realized heritability (0.95) for fruits/plant and high realized heritability (0.65) and realized genetic gain (0.5) for locules/fruit. Fruit weight was improved through pure- line selection. Selections based on trait combination fruits/plant, yield/plant and plant height significantly effected higher locules/fruit (4.2). Selection based on trait combination fruits/plant, yield/plant, locules/fruit and plant height were the earliest to flower (59 days). Days to first harvest were significantly reduced (96 days) through selections based on fruit/plant and yield/plant followed by yield/plant and plant height (98 days). Fruit weight was significantly improved by selections based on yield/plant and locules/fruit (58.5 g). Selections based on yield/plant had high realized heritability (0.59) and realized genetic gain (22.0 g) for fruit weight. Fruit weight was significantly improved by selections based on yield/plant and locules/fruit under SSD method (62.4 g). Transgressive segregants appeared through selection based on yield/plant and locules/fruit. SSD selections had the lowest incidence of wilt (9.86%). Multi- locational trails revealed a survival of 89.5% of plants under normal disease stress. Evaluation of generations from LE79 (CL 32d-0-1-1-1-19GS) x Pusa Ruby Cross indicated a monogenic and incompletely dominant type of gene action for wilt resistance. There was no association between yellow gel colour around the seed and disease resistance. No close linkage between resistance and a fewer locules/fruit was observed. The resistant line (LE79-CL 32d-0-1-1-1-1-19 GS) had higher total and higher root content of Pusa Ruby. - tomatine than the susceptible line - Tomatine content increased and maintained at a higher level in resistant line eventhough the infection progressed consequent to artificial inoculation. Pusa Ruby wilted seven days after inoculation. Total phenol content was higher in roots of Pusa Ruby before and after inoculation. The wilted plants of Pusa Ruby had higher content in root and shoot. The O.D. phenols content was more in the resistant line before and after inoculation. Vitamin C content was also more in roots of LE79 before and after inoculation. A higher ratio of phenols and -tomatine: total phenols, -tomatine: O.D. -tomatine: vitamin C were found in roots of LE79 before inoculation. The wilted plants of Pusa Ruby had lower ration of -tomatine: total phenols and -tomatine: vitamin C. a higher increase in O.D. phenols and vitamin C content on infection was observed in resistant line. The ratio of vitamin C: total phenols was higher in roots of LE79 before infection and the ratio increased in both the lines initially on infection and then decreased but to a greater extent in Pusa Ruby. A higher increase in vitamin C content compared to total phenol was observed in LE79 on infection. A low ratio of total phenol: O.D. phenol was related to resistance in LE79. Inoculation in vitro confirmed the resistance of LE79 to Vellanikkara isolate of Pseudomonas solanacearum E.F. Smith. Grafting of suspectible scion on LE79 delayed wilting of scion even on artificial inoculation.ThesisItem Open Access Intraclonal variations and nutritional studies in banana cv. Palayankodan(Department of Plantation Crops and Spices, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 1985) Rajeevan, P K; KAU; Mohanakumaran, NThe investigations were carried out at the Banana Research Station, Kannara, during 1981-84 in the banana cv. 'Palayankodan'. Twenty four accessions were subjected to detailed analysis with respect to growth, yield and quality. The plants of the accessions differed significantly with regard to height and girth of pseudostem during the later stages of growth , both in the plant crop and in ratoon 1. Significant differences observed in the number of functional leaves were not consistent. Area of the third leaf at shooting varied significantly in all the three crops. The trend in variation between the crops, however, was not consistent. Interval of leaf production, total number of leaves produced and the density of stomata in the upper surface of the leaf lamina showed significant differences. The duration from planting to shooting in ratoon 1 alone varied significantly. The plant crop took more time than ratoon 1 and ratoon 2 to come to harvest. The content of nutrient elements in the index leaf did not exhibit significant variations. The reactionof the accessions to the important pest (rhizome weevil) and diseases (bunchytop and Sigatoke) varied considerably.ThesisItem Open Access Inheritance of clusterness, destalkness and deep red colour in chilli [Capsicum annuum L.](Department of Olericulture, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 1985) Gopalakrishnan, T R; KAU; Gopalakrishnan, P KThe research project " inheritance of clusterness, destalkness and deep red colour in chilli (Capsicum annuum L.) was carried out at the College of Horticulture, Kerala Agricultural University, Vellanikkara, Trichur from July 1979 to September 1983. Preliminary evaluation of 38 chilli lines during 1979 and 46 lines during 1980 revealed considerable variation for most of the economic characters . Phenotypic coefficient of variation was the maximum for fruits/plant followed by fruit length and main stem length. High heritability coupled with high expected genetic advance was observed for fruit length and main stem length. Earliness measured as days to flower and days to red chilli harvest, though having high heritability , had only a very low expected genetic advance.ThesisItem Open Access Cytotaxonomical studies on banana cultivars(Department of Pomology and Floriculture and Landscaping, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 1984) Valsalakumari, P K; KAU; Sivaraman, Nair P CVariability in banana are wide and complex with different degrees of expression of the characters of the parental species, Musa acuminata and Musa balbisiana. Commercial cultivars are many, ranging in levels of productivity and quality characters. Investigations were conducted at the College of Horticulture, Kerala Agricultural University, Vellanikkara, Trichur during 1981-83 on 100 cultivars of banana to study the cytotaxonomical aspects. Studies on morphological characters, taxonomic scoring and chromosome number revealed that many of the cultivars were identical and ultimately the cultivars were confined to 64 distinct ones. The taxonomic scoring did not indicate the ploidy. Eight cultivars with the scores of triploids, were identified as diploids. The quantitative, quality and pollen characters showed a significant variation among the cultivars. The characters were influenced by the ploidy and the genomic constitution. The presence of ‘B’ genome increased plant height and girth, leaves per plant, leaf area per plant and petiole length. Musa balbisiana (BB) recorded the highest values for all the above characters. The triploids were more vigorous than the diploids and the tetraploids as indicated by their higher growth rates. The triploids were also better than the other groups for bunch and finger characters. Among them, the triploids of hybrid origin were better for bunch characters while the Musa acuminata triploid group (AAA) was superior to the other groups for finger characters. Longer pedicel was a characteristic feature of Musa balbisiana( BB). The genomic constitution of the cultivars influenced the contents of total soluble solids, sugars and acids in fruits, more than the ploidy. Musa acuminata group AAA, had the highest sugar/acid ratio. Studies on pollen viability, size and production in cultivars revealed the possibility of including a few of them as male parents in the banana hybridization programme. Forty of the cultivars studied were polleniferous. Pollen viability and production were more in pure Musa acuminata and Musa balbisiana groups than in groups of hybrid origin. Musa acuminata cultivars had larger pollen grains than cultivars belonging to the other genomic groups.Estimates of genotypic and phenotypic coefficients of variation, heritability in the broad sense, genetic advance and genetic gain for the 26 characters indicated the scope for selection among the cultivars. Petiole length, pulp/peel ratio on volume basis, weight and volume of fruit showed higher heritability values combined with high genetic gain. Estimation of genetic divergence among the cultivars showed that the cultivars ‘Mannan’ and ‘Pacha chingan’, belonging to the genomic group AAB, were the closest and a Musa acuminata cultivar, ‘Harichal’ (AAA) and Musa balbisiana (BB) were the farthest. The 62 cultivars were grouped into eight homogeneous clusters. Similar clustering pattern was obtained in the canonical analysis also. The study revealed the predominance of the cultivars of the hybrid origin, with different degrees of expression of the characters of the parental species, in the South Indian bananas. The taxonomic scoring system was not always appropriate to find out the ploidy of the cultivars. The study also indicated the scope for selection among the cultivars and the possibility of inclusion of the cultivars with viable pollen as male parents in the hybridization programme.ThesisItem Open Access Genome analysis in the genus Amatanthus(Department of Olericulture, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 1987) Mallika, V K; KAU; Peter, K VCytogenetical studies on eight Amananthiu species, viz., A. inicot-Qn./ A. JUvvduA/ A. vajujcLaa, A, ApAnoAUA, A, cLliAallA, A,hypochondmacuA, A. cnuentuA and/4, caudaiiu and their hydrids were undertaken to understand their genome relationship, phylogeny and evolution. The development and arrangement of flower cluster In AmcuiardhuA were analysed microscopically and discussed in detail. A simple provisional key was developed for Identification of the eight species as the existing keys were complex and confusing. The eight species were also evaluated for their photoperiodlc requirements and antinutritional factors. Meiotic studies revealed that members of section Blitopsis had x = 17 while section Amaranthus had x = 16 and 17. A.duLuu a polyploid with n = 32 behaved as an allopolyploid. Mean number of chiasmata/bivalent was maximum in the cultivated species and minimum in the semiwild species, A ,apaiioaua which also had maximum number of rod bivalents. Pollen grains of varying sizes (Macro and medium) were observed In all the species. The cultivated species were characterised by bigger chromosomes and pollen grains. Interspecific hybridization was attempted in all possible combinations but many of the crosses failed. A few failed crosses exhibited seedling mortality. Seven interspecific hybrids grew and flowered and these included hybrids within and between sections Blitopsis and Amaranthus. A .IavaduA x. A, ioAcolon. the only interspecific hybrid within Blitopsis resembled mostly the male parent but was highly sterile. Cytologlcal studies revealed the presence of two or more Interchanges involving 3-6 chromosomes and subsequent melotic abnormalities resulted in 90% pollen sterility. The interspecific hybrids within section Amaranthus included A.^p-moAiUyA^nHinA A , ApmoALLb x A.hypochoncbuxLCLU,, A ,4 p m o 4 iu x A , c a u d a iiu t A, A p in o itu x A, c A u & n iiu , and A, c A ii& n tiu x A. c a u d a iiu . The hybrid A .c /u ie n iiu x A,caudaiiu produced only female flowers in the stunted and deformed hybrid plant. Other hybrids exhibited a preponderance of AupinoAtu characters indicated by presence of spines, reduction in inflorescence size, distinct placement of male and female flowers etc. Cytological studies revealed the presence of 1-2 multivalents including 3-4 chromosomes, moderate frequency of bivalents, and a low frequency of univalents in the hybrids. Chromosomal repatterning through translocations and inversions are also involved in speciation within both sections Blitopsis and Amaranthus. A, 6p u \.0Auu x A, v ia m L u , the first success of hybridization between the two sections resulted in a short and sturdy hybrid plant with dominating A.qunoMu characters. Cytological studies revealed that PMCs had high frequency of bivalents and only low frequency of univalents. The complete absence of multivalents indicated that cryptic structural changes and genetic drift are only involved In the cytogenetic differentiation of 2 the two species. D analysis of data of chromosome associations In interspecific hybrids at metaphase I indicate the clustering of hybrids within and between sections under the same group. This as well as morphological studies questions the validity of the naturalness of the two sections in AmaAO/iiJvu, The 40 accessions available in the germplasm were classified into different species based on detailed cytomorphological studies. Twenty one species were ascribed to A, four to A. d u J L u u and 15 to A. h y p o c h o n d b u j a c iiA , The reasons for low seed recovery in the A ,b u £ .o £ o A . accession A- were also studied. Investigations on photoperiodic response of the different species indicated that there is precocious flowering with increase in photoperiod in A. h y p o c h o r u d j u x L c i u , A, riidLuu and A, A p A n o A t u , Flowering was delayed with more light in A, cniirlatiu, and A, iju.c.o&QJi while A, cAuentu& and A, v u u x L l a were photoinsensitive. The content of antinutrient factors in the tender leaf and stem varied from 3.60 to 5.10% for oxalate and 0.295 to 0.695% for nitrate in the different species. In general Blitopsis had higher content of antinutrients than section Amaranthus, the only exception being A, A p .in .o A u A of section Amaranthus. The primitiveness of A ,apjjioaua was evident from the present studies. This pantropical cosmopolitan weed has played a major role in the evolution of otherAmoAaniAuAspp. Evidences were also obtained on the origin of vegetable amaranths from grain amaranths.ThesisItem Open Access Mineral nutrition of nutmeg (Myristica Fragrans Hout.) in relation to deficiency symptoms and flowering(Department of Plantation Crops and Spices, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 1986) Joseph Philip; KAU; Sivaraman Nair, P CDetailed investigations were carried out at the College of Horticulture, Kerala Agricultural University, Vellanikkara from 1982 to 1985 with a view to study the nutrient deficiency symptoms by inducing deficiency and to study the influence of carbohydrates, nutrient elements and their ratios on flowering of nutmeg. Deficiency symptoms of macro-nutrients except Ca and S were first manifested on the older leaves while that of micro-nutrients on younger leaves. Symptoms of N deficiency were expressed as yellowing of leaves with orange tinge except the midrib and lateral veins followed by development of brownish necrotic blotches with bright orange yellow halos. Bronze green to purple discolouration of leaves with purplish brown necrotic blotches were the symptoms of P deficiency. Potassium deficiency symptoms were characterized by chocolate brown necrosis along the leaf tip and margins which later progressed to the distal one third to two third portion of the laminae. Due to Ca deficiency, the younger leaves became thick, brittle and reduced in size with blunt end. Light orange yellow chlorosis developed along the leaf margins and tips followed by the development of necrotic spots with bright orange yellow zone adjacent to the necrotic areas. Magnesium deficiency was characterized by the yellowing of the midrib and lateral veins and adjacent areas starting from the base of the leaf followed by yellowing of the entire laminae, necrosis and outward cupping of margins. In the case of S deficiency, the younger leaves became uniformly lemon yellow which later developed characteristic ‘birds eye spot’ and ‘shot holes’. Interveinal chlorosis of the young leaves was the most commonly observed symptom of micro-nutrient deficiencies. However, the chlorosis was specific to the concerned nutrients. Uniform straw yellow discoloration of leaves with pale green midrib and lateral veins followed by development of necrosis from leaf tip towards base, downward cupping of leaves and asymmetrical laminae were the symptoms of Fe deficiency. Manganese deficiency symptoms were characterized by pale yellow interveinal chlorosis and crinkling of leaves. Development of water-soaked spots from margins and tips in a wavy pattern towards the midrib followed by downward cupping, coppery red necrosis and leaf distortion were the characterization symptom of Cu deficiency. Symptoms of Zn deficiency were expressed as abnormally long and narrow leaves with characteristic mottling and reduced internodes. Boron deficiency symptoms were expressed as crinkling and orange yellow chlorosis of leaf tip of younger leaves which were thick and brittle. Later on, bright orange yellow chlorotic patches developed in between the lateral veins followed by the development of necrosis from margins and tips at the distal portion. Cracks developed at the necrotic areas and torn off. Among the macro and micro-nutrients, the earliest deficiency symptoms were manifested by the element Fe (3rd month), followed by Mg and S (4th month) N (5th month) P and B (7th month), K, Cu and Zn (8th month), Ca (9th month) and Mn (9.5th month). Vegetative growth was markedly reduced due to the deficiency of macro and micro-nutrients. Calcium, P, K, Mg and Zn were the elements which showed profound influence on root growth. The growth of plant was found to be completely arrested at a comparatively early stage (5th month) due to Mg, S and Fe deficiencies, followed by B (7th month), N (9th month), P, K, Ca, Cu an Zn (10th month) and Mn (10.5th month) deficiencies. Visual symptoms of deficiencies were concurred with a marked reduction in the foliar level of the concerned element. The influences of macro and micro-nutrient deficiencies on the foliar level of other nutrients are furnished below. Comparative foliar concentration of nutrients Nutrient deficiency --------------------------------------------------------------------- Elements increased Elements decreased Nitrogen P, Zn, B Mg, Fe, Mn Phosphorus N, Zn Mg, Mn Potassium Ca, Mg Nil Calcium K, Mg, N B Magnesium Ca, K, Cu N Sulphur N, P Nil Iron P, Zn, Mn K, Ca Manganese Fe, K, N Nil Copper Fe, Mg Ca Zinc P, Fe Mg Boron N, P Ca, K The deficiency symptoms could be recovered by the application of the deficient nutrient element. The flowering shoots of nutmeg were found to be associated with a significantly higher concentration of carbohydrates in leaves. The flowered shoots had a relatively lower amount of N in leaves prior to flowering and the N content increased slightly towards flowering. It was observed that the P, K, Ca and Mg were higher in the flowering shoots. But the variation was significant only in the case of Ca and Mg, that too in three flushes out of the normal four. The flowering shoots had a relatively lower concentration of foliar S than that of the non-flowering shoots. The flowering shoots registered significantly higher C/N ratio in leaves than that of the non-flowering shoots. The flowered shoots always registered a relatively higher P/S, Ca/S and Mg/S ratios and a lower foliar level of Ca/Mg, N/P and N/K ratios. The flowered and non-flowered shoots showed an erratic trend with respect to K/Ca, K/P and Ca + Mg ratios.ThesisItem Open Access Standardisation of tissue/meristem culture techniques in important horticultural crops(Department of Plantation Crops and Spices, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 1985) Rajmohan, K; KAU; Mohanakumaran, NAttempts were made in the Plant Tissue Culture Laboratory of the College of Horticulture, during 1981-85 to standardize tissue culture techniques for the propagation of some of the important horticultural crops of Kerala. Explants from shoot apices of fresh stem sprouts of five year old jack (Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.) trees registered a multiplication rate of 4.5 x when cultured for five weeks and produced 70% rooting (in 13.43 days) with 5.43 roots per shoot. The MS medium supplemented with GA 1.0ppm and activated charcoal 1.0% was identified as suitable for culture establishment, supporting the survival and initial growth of the explants. Benzyl adenine 5.0ppm was found to be the optimum cytokinin level for the production of fairly elongated multiple shoots and NAA 0.2ppm was identified as the optimum auxin level for supporting the growth of the cultures. The normal strength of the inorganic salts and organic growth factors of the MS medium, with 3 – 4% sucrose or 2 – 3% glucose was found to support the multiplication and growth of jack shoot cultures. GA3 did not influence the shoot proliferation or growth. Adenine sulphate at 20ppm was found to increase the multiplication rate by 27.3%, without affecting the growth of the cultures. Adenine as well as casein hydrolysate were found to be not beneficial. The Anderson’s medium was found to be unsuitable to support the proliferation and growth of jack shoot cultures. Serial subculturing for 10 times at 4 week interval was found to increase the multiplication rate to 5.39x. The MS medium supplemented with BA 2.0ppm, NAA 0.2ppm and insoluble PVP 500ppm was found to be suitable for shoot elongation. Half strength of the MS inorganic salts, full strength of the MS organic factors, 3% sucrose and 0.6% agar were found to be the optimum for the in vitro rooting of jack shoot cultures. When planted out, the plantlets were observed to have 55.6% survival. Callus production was made possible from explants of shoot apices, internodal segments, leaf segments and root apices. Efforts to induce re-differentiation in the callus, direct organogenesis and direct/callus mediated somatic embryogenesis were not successful. Shoot apices from the seedlings registered a multiplication rate of 17.4x. In this case, the percentage of rooting was 100, with 6.0 roots formed in 20.75 days. Explants from fresh stem sprouts of ten year old and thirty year old trees recorded a shoot multiplication rate of 2.8 and 2.09, respectively in five weeks. In the former, the rooting percentage was 40 with 2.5 roots produced in 24 days, after 2-3 subcultures. In the latter, there was 15% rooting with 2.0 roots formed in 46.7 days, after 2-3 subcultures. Explants from six-month old jack grafts failed to produce multiple shoots and exhibited 50% rooting with 2.0 roots formed in 20.5 days. Cytological examination revealed the stability of chromosome number in the plantlets. Anatomical studies revealed the presence of thin culture in the leaves of the young plantlets. The procedure for the in vitro clonal propagation of jack through the enhanced release of axillary buds involved agitating the surface sterilised shoot apices in a solution of 0.7% insoluble PVP + 2% sucrose for 30-45 minutes and keeping them in sterile water at 4-50C for 24 hours followed by disinfection (3% sodium hypochlorite solution for 5 minutes and 0.1% mercuric chloride solution for 10 minutes) and culture in the establishment medium (MS + GA 1.0ppm + activated charcoal 1.0%) in darkness for four weeks with repeated subculturing. The cultures were then exposed to light for two weeks, after which the growing shoot apices were transferred to the proliferation medium (MS + BA 5.0ppm + NAA 0.2ppm + adenine sulphate 20ppm + insoluble PVP 500ppm). Shoots from the proliferation medium were transferred after five weeks to an elongation medium (MS + BA 2.0ppm + NAA 0.2ppm + insoluble PVP 500ppm). The shoots were then cultured on MS medium containing activated charcoal 1.0% for two weeks. For the in vitro root induction, the shoots were cultured in darkness in 1⁄2 MS + IBA 2.0ppm + NAA 2.0ppm + sucrose 3% + agar 0.6% (for 6 days) and then transferred to 1⁄2 MS without growth substances for root elongation. Just after the appearance of the roots, the plantlets were hardened by exposure to high light intensity (3500 lux) for one week. The plantlets were than transferred to vermiculture medium, under high relative humidity (90-100%) provided by microscope covers. The plants were watered with a solution of the MS inorganic salts at half strength. After another gradual hardening process and as new leaves were produced, the plantlets were transferred to garden pots and kept in the open field conditions. The cost of production of one jack plantlet, including one month’s hardening was worked out to Rs.9.09. Explants of mussaenda (Mussaenda ervthrophylla Schum. Thonn.) were effectively surface sterilized by treating with 0.1% mercuric chloride solution for 15 minutes. The suitable culture establishment medium was identified as MS + BA 0.5ppm + kinetin 0.5ppm. A shoot multiplication rate of 2.75x was realized in a period of four weeks on MS medium supplemented with BA 0.5ppm and kinetin 0.5ppm. Sub- culturing was found to increase the multiplication rate to 2.95x. Full strength of the MS inorganic salts was found to support the proliferation and growth of mussaenda shoot cultures. Adenine sulphate, auxins and Anderson’s medium were found to be not beneficial. The shoots were made to root on MS medium containing half strength of the inorganic salts and full strength of the organic growth factors, 3% sucrose, 0.6% agar, 0.4ppm IBA and 0.4ppm NAA, under dark conditions in 37 days. Anderson’s rooting medium was found to be inefficient for the in vitro rooting of mussaenda shoot cultures. Attempts for planting out were not successful, probably due to the low number of roots (which were weak and slender), the development of callus at the root-shoot junction and the partial withering and yellowing of the shoots by the time the roots were initiated. Attempts for the direct planting out of the shoots pretreated with IBA solution were not successful. Segments of ovary wall was identified as the best source of explant for callus production, registering a callus index value of 400, at the best treatment (NAA/kinetin combinations 2.0 + 1.0ppm and 4.0 + 2.0ppm). Shoot regeneration from the callus occurred at a frequency of 33.3% on MS medium supplemented with BA 2.0ppm or BA/kinetin combinations 0.5 + 0.5ppm and 0.5 + 0.3ppm. Root regeneration was observed at a frequency of 66.7% with 13.33 roots per culture on MS medium containing kinetin/NAA combination 2.0 + 8.0ppm after 60 days’ culture. Attempts for direct organogenesis were not successful. Globular structures resembling somatic embryoids having simultaneous root and shoot development were observed when the callus from the induction medium (MS + 2,4-D 2.0ppm + kinetin 1.0ppm) was transferred to MS medium containing BA/kinetin combinations 0.5 + 0.5ppm or 1.0 + 0.5ppm after 70 to 73 days culture. About 4.5 shoots with a tuft of miniature roots were formed per culture, at the best treatment. Attempts for inducing direct somatic embryogenesis were not successful. Preliminary studies on culture establishment were made for breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis L.) and nutmeg (Myristica Fragrans Houtt.). Slight callus production was made possible in both the cases. Preliminary studies on somatic organogenesis were made in the case of pepper (Piper nigrum L.). Callus production and redifferentiation were observed.ThesisItem Open Access Investigations on the nutrition of black pepper (Piper nigrum L.)(Department of Plantation Crops and Spices, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 1986) Nybe, E V; KAU; Sivaraman Nair, P CDetailed studies were conducted in black pepper (var. Panniyur 1) from 1981 to 1985 at the Pepper Research Station, Panniyur and College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara with a view to induce nutrient deficiency symptoms by sand culture and to find out the relationships of foliar nutrients with yield. Deficiency symptoms of macro-nutrients except Ca and S were first manifested on the older leaves while that of micro-nutrients on younger leaves. Symptoms of N deficiency were expressed as uniform yellowing followed by necrosis whereas purple to bronze yellowing with ash coloured necrotic areas were the symptoms of P deficiency. Potassium deficiency symptom was characterized by tip and marginal necrosis which later progressed to the two-thirds distal portion of the lamina. Calcium deficiency symptoms appeared as tiny brown necrotic spots on chlorotic area near margins which later enlarged to form black necrotic areas. Visible symptom of Mg deficiency was oval interveinal chlorotic area followed by black necrotic patches. Sulphur deficiency was manifested as uniform yellowing with brown necrotic spots. There was profound reduction in vegetative growth due to deficiency of macronutrients. The reduction in shoot growth and leaf area index was maximum in the case of deficiency of N (56 and 63% respectively) followed by S (48 and 17% respectively). The reduction in root growth was quite high due to deficiency of Ca (61%), P (45%) and N (39%). Interveinal chlorosis was the initial symptom of deficiency of all micro- nutrients. However, the symptoms were specific to the concerned nutrients. Iron chlorosis was characterized by the presence of green bands along the major veins whereas bronze yellow colour of the interveinal areas was the specific symptom of Mn deficiency. Bronze colour of the entire lamina with necrotic tips and margins were the symptoms of Cu deficiency. Zinc deficiency was unique with little leaf and rosetting. Due to B deficiency, the leaves became large, thick and brittle with orange yellow mottles on upper surface and grey brown interveinal patches on lower surface. Unlike macronutrients, there was no marked reduction in vegetative growth due to deficiency of micro-nutrients except Fe and B which recorded 35 and 22 per cent reduction respectively, in total dry matter production. Boron deficient plants registered 18 per cent increase in leaf area index. The growth of the vine was completely arrested at comparatively early stage (4.5 months after treatment) due to S deficiency followed by N (6th month), Fe (7th month), B (12th month), P (13th month) and Cu (14.5 months after treatment). There was no cessation of growth in the case of deficiencies of other nutrients. Visual symptoms of deficiencies were concurred with a marked reduction in the foliar levels of the concerned elements. Antagonistic effects among K, Ca and Mg were also observed. In all other cases, deficiency of one element failed to influence the foliar level of others. The deficiency symptoms could be recovered by the application of the deficient nutrient element which provided valid information for the confirmation of the deficiency symptoms. The foliar levels of macro-nutrients except Ca registered two peaks, one in June and the other in October while the lowest level was during April. The nutrients namely Ca, Fe, Mn and Zn, in general showed a decreasing trend from April to June and thereafter increased and reached maximum level in December. Highly significant positive correlations were showed by P, K, Ca and Mg with yield. The critical level of S was found to be 0.15%. The ‘tentative critical levels’ suggested for the other elements studied are as follows: N - 2.1 to 2.4% P - 0.19 to 0.20% K - 1.8 to 1.9% Ca- 2.8 to 2.9% Mg - 0.5 to 0.6% Fe - 156 to 169 ppm Mn - 77 to 88 ppm Zn- 30 to 32 ppm The two most important nutrient elements which are highly essential for the production of pepper could be identified as K and P in view of their high direct and indirect effects on yield.
