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Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur
The history of agricultural education in Kerala can be traced back to the year 1896 when a scheme was evolved in the erstwhile Travancore State to train a few young men in scientific agriculture at the Demonstration Farm, Karamana, Thiruvananthapuram, presently, the Cropping Systems Research Centre under Kerala Agricultural University. Agriculture was introduced as an optional subject in the middle school classes in the State in 1922 when an Agricultural Middle School was started at Aluva, Ernakulam District. The popularity and usefulness of this school led to the starting of similar institutions at Kottarakkara and Konni in 1928 and 1931 respectively.
Agriculture was later introduced as an optional subject for Intermediate Course in 1953. In 1955, the erstwhile Government of Travancore-Cochin started the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, Thiruvananthapuram and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences at Mannuthy, Thrissur for imparting higher education in agricultural and veterinary sciences, respectively. These institutions were brought under the direct administrative control of the Department of Agriculture and the Department of Animal Husbandry, respectively. With the formation of Kerala State in 1956, these two colleges were affiliated to the University of Kerala. The post-graduate programmes leading to M.Sc. (Ag), M.V.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees were started in 1961, 1962 and 1965 respectively.
On the recommendation of the Second National Education Commission (1964-66) headed by Dr. D.S. Kothari, the then Chairman of the University Grants Commission, one Agricultural University in each State was established. The State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) were established in India as an integral part of the National Agricultural Research System to give the much needed impetus to Agriculture Education and Research in the Country. As a result the Kerala Agricultural University (KAU) was established on 24th February 1971 by virtue of the Act 33 of 1971 and started functioning on 1st February 1972. The Kerala Agricultural University is the 15th in the series of the SAUs.
In accordance with the provisions of KAU Act of 1971, the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, were brought under the Kerala Agricultural University. In addition, twenty one agricultural and animal husbandry research stations were also transferred to the KAU for taking up research and extension programmes on various crops, animals, birds, etc.
During 2011, Kerala Agricultural University was trifurcated into Kerala Veterinary and Animal Sciences University (KVASU), Kerala University of Fisheries and Ocean Studies (KUFOS) and Kerala Agricultural University (KAU).
Now the University has seven colleges (four Agriculture, one Agricultural Engineering, one Forestry, one Co-operation Banking & Management), six RARSs, seven KVKs, 15 Research Stations and 16 Research and Extension Units under the faculties of Agriculture, Agricultural Engineering and Forestry. In addition, one Academy on Climate Change Adaptation and one Institute of Agricultural Technology offering M.Sc. (Integrated) Climate Change Adaptation and Diploma in Agricultural Sciences respectively are also functioning in Kerala Agricultural University.
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ThesisItem Embargo Evaluation of banana cultivars for sheath fibre yield and quality(Department of Fruit Science, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, 2021) Asish, Benny; KAU; Pushpalatha, P BThe research work “Evaluation of banana cultivars for sheath fibre yield and quality” was carried out in the Department of Fruit Science, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara during the academic year 2019-2021. As part of this experiment, biomass produced by different banana cultivars and their fibre yield were recorded. The fibre obtained from different cultivars were analysed for their physical and biochemical characters. Significant variation was observed among the cultivars belonging to different genomic groups with regard to biomass production. The highest values for whole plant weight (45.20 kg), pseudostem weight (30.19 kg) and leaf weight (6.42 kg) were recorded in Elavazha, whereas the highest rhizome weight was recorded in Karpooravally (10.63 kg). Maximum plant biomass production was noticed in cultivars with BB genome (42.24 kg) and least in cultivars with AA genome (12.08 kg). In general, cultivars with ‘B’ genome were found to produce higher biomass than cultivars with ‘A’ genome. The number of fibre extractable sheaths were found to vary (10-16) among the different cultivars. The maximum number of fibre extractable sheaths was recorded in cultivars Kunnan, Njalipoovan, Mysore Poovan and Monthan (16 each) followed by Elavazha and Grand Naine (15 each). The percentage of fibre extractable pseudostem among the different cultivars was found to be in the range of 41.52% (Kunnan) to 76.18% (Grand Naine). Sheath weight was found to be correlated with the weight of leaves, pseudostem, rhizome and whole plant and the average sheath weight was highest in Karpooravally (1083.57 g) and Elavazha (1072.89 g) followed by Attikol (1026.43 g). It was observed that, sheath weight was higher in the middle layers and showed a trend reducing towards outer and inner layers in all banana cultivars except for Chenkadali in which sheath weight of the outer layers were also higher. Among the methods of extraction, mechanical extraction was found to be better compared to manual method with respect to fibre yield. Fibre yield was directly correlated with sheath weight in each cultivar and as in the case of sheath weight, fibre yield was also found to be higher from middle sheath layers than that from outer and inner sheath layers. In cultivar Chenkadali, higher fibre yield was recorded from both outer sheaths and middle sheaths. Apart from such exception, the superiority of ‘B’ genome with respect to fibre yield was unravelled through higher yield and higher recovery percentage in Elavazha and Attikol. Fibre yield from the whole plant was comparatively high in Elavazha (157.38 g) followed by Chenkadali (146.97 g). Physical characters of banana fibres such as tex and diameter did not vary with respect to the method of extraction. However, variation was there among cultivars and also depending upon the position of sheath layer in pseudostem. Tex of fibre from different cultivars ranged from 5.50 to 21.70, whereas diameter ranged from 0.06 mm to 0.18 mm. Tex and diameter of the fibre were found to be positively correlated. With regard to TSS content of pseudostem juice, it was found to be very less in all the cultivars, with a comparatively higher value in Elavazha (1.37ºBrix). The values recorded for pH (5.32 to 6.87) and acidity of pseudostem juice of different cultivars indicated that the juice is slightly acidic in nature. Moisture content in freshly extracted fibre ranged from 49.98% to 77.78% and was found to be high in cultivars belonging to AB and ABB genomic groups. Significant variation was observed among the cultivars with respect to cellulose, lignin, carbohydrates and pectin in dry fibre. The cellulose content in fibre of different cultivars ranged between 43.86% and 68.70%, lignin content ranged between 11.64% and 39.23%, carbohydrate content ranged between 1.05% and 2.76% and pectin content ranged between 1.40% and 3.80%. The cellulose content in fibre was found to be high in cultivars with BB genome and lowest in cultivars with AAA genome. Lignin content was negatively correlated with cellulose content and ‘A’ genome was found to contribute more towards lignin content than ‘B genome. Pectin content was also positively correlated with lignin content. Among sheath layers, cellulose content was higher in fibre from inner sheath layers, whereas lignin and pectin content was higher in the outer sheath layers.ThesisItem Open Access Ecophysiology of mango (Mangifera indica L.) under high density planting system in Muthalamada area(Department of Fruit Science, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2020) Reshma Ravi, P; KAU; Ajith Kumar, KThe experiment on “Ecophysiology of mango (Mangifera indica L.) under High Density Planting System in Muthalamada area” was conducted in a farmer’s orchard in Muthalamada located in Kollengode block panchayath of Palakkad district during October 2018 to May 2020. The objective of the study was to evaluate the response of different varieties of mango to climatic conditions prevailing in Muthalamada area and study the phenological cycles of growth and production. Four varieties namely, Alphonso, Banganapalli, Imam Pasand and Sindhooram, which were extensively cultivated by the farmers of Muthalamada were selected as the material for study for the study. Five trees each from the four varieties under study, maintained under high density planting system were selected at random for the study. The varieties in the orchard were of four years of age and were maintained under good management practices. Observations on tree characters, inflorescence characters, phenological stages, leaf nutrient status, physiological and biochemical characters and yield were recorded. In addition to these, observations on meteorological data, soil nutrient status and incidence of pests and diseases were recorded during the period under study and correlation studies were done to evaluate the effects of parameters on the flowering and yield of the varieties. Among the four varieties, early flowering was noticed in the variety Banganapalli, followed by the varieties Imam Pasand, Alphonso and Sindhooram. Fruit set was observed in all the varieties except Imam Pasand. Among the three varieties which had fruited, the variety Alphonso recorded the maximum fruit weight (274.62 g) and the variety Sindhooram recorded the maximum fruit yield (11.27 kg). Correlation coefficient analysis was carried out to identify the factors which influenced the flowering and fruiting behaviour in Muthalamada region. The level of potassium content in the leaves was significantly correlated with earliness in flowering with a correlation coefficient of -0.769 and flowering duration exhibited a positive correlation with leaf C:N ratio and boron content with a significant correlation coefficient of 0.509 and 0.530. The inflorescence length and width showed a significant negative correlation with the carbohydrate: nitrogen ratio, magnesium content and boron content in the leaves. The physiological parameter transpiration rate was negatively correlated with the number of days taken from pruning to flowering with a significant correlation coefficient of -0.520. The time taken (days) to attain flowering was having a significant positive correlation with leaf proline content before flowering and canopy air temperature. This suggested that the trees tend to flower earlier under higher canopy temperatures and proline content in the leaves. It was observed that the weather parameters in Muthalamada region influenced the flowering behaviour in the varieties. The earliness in flowering and flowering duration were positively correlated with average maximum temperature before flowering and the heat units accumulated by the resting bud with a significant correlation coefficient of 0.869 and 0.973 respectively. This indicated the effect of higher temperatures in stimulating flowering. Earliness in flowering showed a significant negative correlation to the average rainfall obtained from pruning to flowering, which indicated the requirement of low rainfall for flowering. The inflorescence length and width were having negative correlation with average minimum temperature and average rainfall with a significant correlation coefficient of -0.690 and -0.775 respectively. This indicated that the inflorescence attains better length and width under higher daily minimum temperatures and rainfall. Flowering duration exhibited positive correlation with average maximum and minimum temperatures. It also exhibited a significant positive correlation with the heat units accumulated. The accumulation of proline before flowering was positively correlated to the average maximum temperature and heat units accumulated. A strong negative correlation was observed between leaf proline content and average rainfall. This suggested that the accumulation of proline is associated with higher temperatures and lower rainfall regimes. Overall perusal of the results indicated that the earliness in flowering in Muthalamada area is due to the influence of the weather conditions prevailing in the region and the growing degree days required by the varieties. The variety Sindhooram was superior in terms of yield but was comparatively late to the other varieties. Considering the earliness in fruit maturity, the variety Banganapalli fetches maximum price and is the most profitable variety for this region.ThesisItem Open Access Reproductive biology and evaluation of kokum (garcinia indica (thouars) choisy) genotypes(Department of Fruit Science, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, 2021) Manjunath Sharanappa, Tondihal; KAU; Vikram, H CKokum (Garcinia indica (Thouars) Choisy) is a valuable yet underutilized perennial fruit tree. It is gaining importance due to multifarious uses mainly in the preparation of pleasant and attractive beverages which have rich medicinal properties. Kokum is one of the native species exhibiting a complex nature of flowering and fruiting behaviour. In the present investigation, twenty nine genotypes of kokum maintained at College Orchard, Department of Fruit Science as well as ICARNBPGR, Regional Station, Vellanikkara were studied systematically for phenological growth stages, floral characters, growth, yield and quality parameters during the period 2019-2021. In kokum, a total of 7 principal growth stages and 35 secondary growth stages were identified and described by using extended Biologische Bundesantalt, Bundessortenamt and Chemische Industrie (BBCH) scale (Meier, 2001). The principal growth stage 0- the vegetative bud development recorded 17 days, stage 1- the leaf development stage took 48 days, stage 3- the shoot development extended for 65 days, stage 5- the reproductive bud development took 32 days, stage 6- flowering lasted for 11 days, stage 7- which represented the fruit development had the longest duration of 103 days and stage 8- the fruit maturity and ripening took 5 days. Among the twenty nine genotypes studied for floral characters, twelve genotypes were female, fifteen were male and one genotype produced bisexual flowers. Male flowers were of two types, type I male flowers were present in all the fifteen male trees, whereas type II male flowers were present in seven male trees. Variation was observed among the genotypes for qualitative characters of flower viz., position of inflorescence (axillary, terminal or both), calyx colour (greenish yellow to yellowish green), corolla colour (yellow to yellowish orange), nature of stamens (free in all male and bisexual flowers), presence of pistillode (present in type II male flower and absent in type I male flower), staminodes were observed in female flowers only and it ranged from 3.7 to 11.8 in number, stigmatic rays was tuberculate and it found to be similar in all the female genotypes. The genotypes varied significantly with respect to quantitative characters of flowers such as number of flowers per m2 (10.90 to 25.20), length (3.48 mm to 6.64 mm) and breadth (4.78 mm to 8.05 mm) of flower. Majority of the female trees produced solitary or in groups of two to three, whereas male and bisexual trees produced flowers in clusters. Female flowers were sessile or with small pedicels, whereas in male flowers, pedicel length ranged from 3.41 to 5.73 mm. The time of anthesis in all three types of flowers found to occur from 19.30 to 21.00 hours. The anther dehiscence in male and bisexual flowers were found to start simultaneously from 19.00 hours and it continued till 20.30 hours. Stigma receptivity was observed at the time of anthesis and it remained receptive for about 12 to 14 hours. Both type I and type II male flowers had round shaped pollen which measured about 5 µm diameter. The pollens of bisexual flowers were elongated with prominent ridges on the surface and showed same size as that of male pollen. Acetocarmine test revealed that 84.07 to 98.49 per cent of pollen were found to be viable in male and bisexual flowers of kokum. Controlled pollination was performed in different combinations, female tree as receptors and male (type I and type II flowers) as well as bisexual trees as donors for understanding pollination and fruit set behaviour in different sex form of kokum. Female trees crossed with type II male and bisexual flowers recorded 100 per cent fruit set. Female trees crossed with type I male flower recorded 60 per cent of fruit set, whereas bisexual flowers on selfing exhibited 50 per cent fruit set. In the present study, variation was noticed among the kokum genotypes with regard to the growth and leaf characters. Fruit characters were recorded from thirteen bearing genotypes and all these genotypes were found to vary significantly for the fruit characters. Fruit weight ranged from 12.17 to 40.14 g, fruit volume varied from 34.22 to 45.60 cm3 , fresh weight of rind varied from 7.15 to 21.01 g, dry weight of rind ranged from 1.09 to 3.07 g, rind to seed ratio ranged from 0.81 to 1.77 and rind thickness varied from 2.46 to 3.41 mm. Genotype, IC552528-3 recorded maximum number of fruits per m2 (71.10), ACC.FSC-9 had produced the highest number of fruits per tree (2258) and fruit yield per tree (60.64 kg). Kokum genotypes differed significantly for all the biochemical parameters except moisture content. Moisture content ranged from 82.91 to 90.34 per cent, titratable acidity ranged from 2.30 to 4.47 per cent, total sugars varied from 4.32 to 10.60 per cent, TSS ranged from 5.65 to 14.15 0Brix and anthocyanin content varied from 11.12 to 25.01 mg per 100 g. Genotypes were ranked based on the biochemical composition of the fruit rind. Genotypes, IC552528-3 and IC136687-3 which had significantly high TSS and low acidity were ranked as superior quality genotypes and these genotypes can be utilised for value addition. Based on the yield and quality parameters nine genotypes were selected for organic acid profiling of kokum rind. The Liquid Chromatography Mass Spectrometry (LCMS) analysis revealed that eleven major constituents are present in kokum rind. Total organic acids in the genotypes varied from 47.12 (IC342319-2) to 759.29 mg/g (ACC.FSC-1). Among the different organic acids, hydroxycitric acid (HCA) was predominant (1908.48 mg/g) followed by citric acid (1254.89 mg/g). Significantly the highest HCA (652.52 mg/g) was recorded in ACC.FSC-6. It has antiobesic, anticholesterol and UV protecting properties and hence, genotypes which are found rich in HCA can be utilised by the pharmaceutical industries. Cluster analysis of kokum genotypes based on organic acids formed five different clusters. Genotypes under the same cluster showed more similarity in bioactive compounds. Principal component analysis distinguished distribution of organic acid constituents into two axes. The axes first two principal components explained 63.03 per cent of total variance. The knowledge on variability of chemical constituents has vital role in identification of chemotypes which pave way for investigation on therapeutic potential of genotypes.ThesisItem Open Access Evaluation of dragon fruit (hylocereus spp.) genotypes grown in Kerala(Department of Fruit Science, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, 2021) Keerthana, Sethunath; KAU; Jyothi, BhaskarDragon fruit (Hylocereus spp.) commonly known as the pitaya, is a perennial climbing vine belonging to the Cactaceae family. The present work carried out in the Department of Fruit Science during the period 2019-2021 to study the morphology, flowering, yield and quality attributes of dragon fruit grown in four districts of Kerala (Thiruvananthapuram, Pathanamthitta, Ernakulam and Thrissur) is of vital importance with respect to the popularity dragon fruit has gained within a very short span of time in Kerala. A total of 100 plants, 10 each from 10 different locations were evaluated based on the UPOV descriptor guidelines to characterise the different genotypes that are being cultivated in Kerala. The plants were denoted as P1 to P10, prefixed with the first two letters of the location to which they belong. The commercial cultivation of dragon fruit in Kerala was found to be dominated by the dark pink/purple fleshed dragon fruit (Hylocereus costaricensis). Within this species, more than one genotype was identified. The stem, flower, yield and quality attributes were found to vary widely. The stem characters included stem segment length (33-210 cm), stem segment width ((1.80-6.60cm), distance between areoles (2.00-5.50 cm), arch height (1.00-4.20 cm), stem waxiness (strong and weak), stem sturdiness (high and low), margin of rib (convex and flat), number of spines per areole (3-5), spine colour (medium brown and dark brown), height of the pole (6.5-8 ft with 1-2 ft buried underground), number of branches (numerous) and number of stem segments per branch (1-6). Variations were also observed for the flower characters such as bud shape (ovate and elliptic), shape of bud apex (acute and rounded), secondary colour pattern of sepal (slightly red edged and red edged), intensity of red colour on bracts (weak, medium and strong), length of style (23.50-31.00 cm) and number of stigma lobes (26-36). The yield characters studied were fruit weight (84-896g), length of fruit (4.60-10.40 cm), width of fruit (4.40-10.40 cm), length/width ratio of fruit (1.00-1.21), number of bracts (18- 50), length of apical bract (3.00-6.30cm), width of base of the bract(1.40-5.70 cm), position of bracts towards the peel (adpressed, slightly held out and strongly held out), fruit weight without peel (52-592 g), fruit shape (oval or spherical), colour of peel 2 (medium pink and dark pink), flesh colour (dark pink and purple) and yield per post (5- 20 kg per year based on the age of the plants). The values ranged from 11 to 18 °B with respect to the TSS of the fruits whereas the titrable acidity was found to be 0.12 per cent in all the fruits. The plants KoP1 to KoP10 from Kozhenchery received the maximum score for appearance, taste, flavour, after taste and overall acceptance. Plants came into bearing within 1.5 to 2 years of planting when stem cuttings were used as the planting material. The duration from flower bud initiation to anthesis was 12-15 days in general and anthesis took place during the night time after 10 p.m. If the pollination was successful, fruit could be visible after 5 to 7 days of anthesis and the harvest was possible in 23-25 days from fruit set i.e., one month after anthesis. When the phenology of the plants was studied, flowering started in the month of March in two locations (Athikkayam and Vaniyampara) whereas in all the other locations, it started in the month of April. The flowering season extended till September to October. The fruiting season started exactly one month after the anthesis and ceased one month after the flowering has stopped, i.e., April to November. As dragon fruit was a perennial crop, different orchards were grouped into three phases based on the age of the plants, namely the establishment phase (0-2 years), yield increasing phase (2-4 years) and yield stabilizing phase (4 years and above). Considering the phases, total cost of cultivation was calculated and it was found to be ₹8,29,393 per year per hectare. The maximum cost during establishment phase was incurred for the planting material and construction of posts. During the maintenance phase, maximum expenditure was for the manure and fertilizer application. Average yield per year per hectare was observed to be around 21 tonnes and the average price received by farmers was ₹174 per kg. Net return from one hectare was around ₹27,32,768. The B:C ratio was 4.29 when the farmers received ₹174 per kg fruit. The B:C ratio obtained with the least price (₹120 per kg) was 3.04. Being a highly remunerative crop, area under dragon fruit cultivation was found to be expanding year after year, as more under-utilized lands are being brought under this crop. Major constraint identified in the cultivation of dragon fruit was the bud and flower drop due to excessive and continuous rainfall during the flowering season. Weed 3 growth was also found to be a major problem. The source of planting material in all the locations under study were found to be either from Malaysia or Cambodia. Since dragon fruit was a crop introduced recently to India, the incidence of pests and diseases were less compared to other fruit crops. But the menace caused by ants was common and rarely, mealy bugs and beetles were found. Fruits were found to be damaged by birds. Disease symptoms similar to canker were observed on the fruits and stem in one of the locations. Physiological disorder like yellowing during extreme summer was common in most of the orchards and these symptoms vanished immediately after a shower or with irrigation. The variability within the species was analysed using statistical techniques like factor analysis and cluster analysis. Maximum variability (59.38%) in the stem and flower characters was explained by two dimensions. The characters that contributed to the variability were intensity of red colour of bract, stem waxiness, stem sturdiness, margin of rib, spine colour, bud shape, bud apex shape, number of stigma lobes, length of style and distance between areoles. Similarly, maximum variability (62.74%) in the quality attributes were contributed by the first two dimensions out of four significant dimensions. The characters responsible for creating the variability were fruit weight, position of bract towards peel, fruit width, fruit weight without peel, fruit length, flesh colour, fruit shape, width of base of bract, length of apical bract, outer TSS, TSS-acid ratio and core TSS. Cluster analysis of the qualitative traits formed six different clusters. When the mixed data with both qualitative and quantitative characters were analysed through clustering, there were three clusters based on the stem and flower characters and four clusters based on the yield and quality attributes, which indicated variability within the species. Other species of Hylocereus namely H. undatus and H. megalanthus, and other types known as Bruni and Frankis Red imported from countries like Thailand and Vietnam are also under cultivation by farmers and are getting popular in different parts of Kerala.ThesisItem Open Access Ecophysiology of mango (Mangifera indica L.) under high density planting system in Muthalamada area(Department of Fruit Science, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2020) Reshma Ravi, P; KAU; Ajith Kumar, KThe experiment on “Ecophysiology of mango (Mangifera indica L.) under High Density Planting System in Muthalamada area” was conducted in a farmer’s orchard in Muthalamada located in Kollengode block panchayath of Palakkad district during October 2018 to May 2020. The objective of the study was to evaluate the response of different varieties of mango to climatic conditions prevailing in Muthalamada area and study the phenological cycles of growth and production. Four varieties namely, Alphonso, Banganapalli, Imam Pasand and Sindhooram, which were extensively cultivated by the farmers of Muthalamada were selected as the material for study for the study. Five trees each from the four varieties under study, maintained under high density planting system were selected at random for the study. The varieties in the orchard were of four years of age and were maintained under good management practices. Observations on tree characters, inflorescence characters, phenological stages, leaf nutrient status, physiological and biochemical characters and yield were recorded. In addition to these, observations on meteorological data, soil nutrient status and incidence of pests and diseases were recorded during the period under study and correlation studies were done to evaluate the effects of parameters on the flowering and yield of the varieties. Among the four varieties, early flowering was noticed in the variety Banganapalli, followed by the varieties Imam Pasand, Alphonso and Sindhooram. Fruit set was observed in all the varieties except Imam Pasand. Among the three varieties which had fruited, the variety Alphonso recorded the maximum fruit weight (274.62 g) and the variety Sindhooram recorded the maximum fruit yield (11.27 kg). Correlation coefficient analysis was carried out to identify the factors which influenced the flowering and fruiting behaviour in Muthalamada region. The level of potassium content in the leaves was significantly correlated with earliness in flowering with a correlation coefficient of -0.769 and flowering duration exhibited a positive correlation with leaf C:N ratio and boron content with a significant correlation coefficient of 0.509 and 0.530. The inflorescence length and width showed a significant negative correlation with the carbohydrate: nitrogen ratio, magnesium content and boron content in the leaves. The physiological parameter transpiration rate was negatively correlated with the number of days taken from pruning to flowering with a significant correlation coefficient of -0.520. The time taken (days) to attain flowering was having a significant positive correlation with leaf proline content before flowering and canopy air temperature. This suggested that the trees tend to flower earlier under higher canopy temperatures and proline content in the leaves. It was observed that the weather parameters in Muthalamada region influenced the flowering behaviour in the varieties. The earliness in flowering and flowering duration were positively correlated with average maximum temperature before flowering and the heat units accumulated by the resting bud with a significant correlation coefficient of 0.869 and 0.973 respectively. This indicated the effect of higher temperatures in stimulating flowering. Earliness in flowering showed a significant negative correlation to the average rainfall obtained from pruning to flowering, which indicated the requirement of low rainfall for flowering. The inflorescence length and width were having negative correlation with average minimum temperature and average rainfall with a significant correlation coefficient of -0.690 and -0.775 respectively. This indicated that the inflorescence attains better length and width under higher daily minimum temperatures and rainfall. Flowering duration exhibited positive correlation with average maximum and minimum temperatures. It also exhibited a significant positive correlation with the heat units accumulated. The accumulation of proline before flowering was positively correlated to the average maximum temperature and heat units accumulated. A strong negative correlation was observed between leaf proline content and average rainfall. This suggested that the accumulation of proline is associated with higher temperatures and lower rainfall regimes. Overall perusal of the results indicated that the earliness in flowering in Muthalamada area is due to the influence of the weather conditions prevailing in the region and the growing degree days required by the varieties. The variety Sindhooram was superior in terms of yield but was comparatively late to the other varieties. Considering the earliness in fruit maturity, the variety Banganapalli fetches maximum price and is the most profitable variety for this region.ThesisItem Open Access Foliar nutrition with calcium and micronutrients for growth and yield enhancement in papaya (Carica papaya L.)(Department of Fruit Science, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2020) Anju, P; KAU; Bindu, BThe study entitled “Foliar nutrition with calcium and micronutrients for growth and yield enhancement in papaya (Carica papaya L.)” was conducted at Department of Fruit Science, College of Agriculture Vellayani, from 2019 April to 2020 April. Micronutrients and secondary nutrients like calcium play a major role in crop production due to their essentiality in plant metabolism and adverse effect that manifest due to their deficiency. The present work was undertaken to assess the effect of foliar application of micronutrients and calcium on growth, yield and quality of papaya. The field experiment was laid out in Randomized Block Design (RBD) with 9 treatments and 3 replications. Surya, IIHR (Indian Institute of Horticultural Research) gynodioecious variety was used for the research purpose. Treatments were T1- Borax (0.5%), T2 - Zinc sulphate (0.5%) and T3 - Calcium nitrate (0.5%), T4 - T1 + T3, T5 - T1 + T2, T6 - T2 + T3, T7 - T1 + T2 + T3, T8 - Water spray and T9 – Control (KAU POP). Treatments from T1 to T8 were applied at 4th and 7th months after planting. Organic manure (10 kg FYM plant-1) and NPK (240: 240: 480 g plant-1 year-1) were given uniformly to all treatments as soil application as per KAU POP recommendation. Treatment with foliar application of Borax (0.5%), Zinc sulphate (0.5%) and Calcium nitrate (0.5%) increased the biometric parameters like plant height and number of leaves at 6 MAP, 8 MAP,10 MAP and 12 MAP. A significant increase in plant girth at all stages of growth was observed for the same treatment. From the present investigation, it was found that foliar application of Borax (0.5%), Zinc sulphate (0.5%) along with Calcium nitrate (0.5%) reduced the height at first flowering, days to flowering, duration for harvest of papaya fruit and increased the number of female plants than that of bisexual plants, fruit set percent and number of flowers per cluster. The results indicated that yield characters such as fruit weight, fruit length, fruit girth, fruit volume, pulp percentage, flesh thickness, number of fruits per plant and total yield per plant were highest with the combined application of Borax, Zinc sulphate and Calcium nitrate @ 0.5% respectively as foliar spray, where, number of seeds per fruit and days taken for maturity of fruits reduced significantly for the same treatment. With regard to qualitative attributes studied TSS, total carotenoids, ascorbic acid, total sugar, reducing sugar, colour of pulp and peel and firmness of pulp were shown positive response with the spray of Borax (0.5%), Zinc sulphate (0.5%) along with Calcium nitrate (0.5%) however, reduction in acidity was found with the same treatment. Water spray recorded the highest value for non-reducing sugar content in papaya. The foliar application of Borax (0.5%), Zinc sulphate (0.5%) and Calcium nitrate (0.5%) increased the organoleptic qualities like appearance, colour, texture, taste, flavour and overall acceptability. Shelf life of papaya fruits were longer with the same treatment. From this study it was observed that soil parameters like soil pH, EC, organic carbon, available nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium, boron, zinc and calcium did not show any significant variation with the foliar application of micronutrients and calcium. Data from the plant analysis and fruit analysis of papaya showed that nitrogen, phosphorous, boron, zinc and calcium content was highest with the foliar application of Borax (0.5%), Zinc sulphate (0.5%) and Calcium nitrate (0.5%). But Potassium content in both leaf petiole and fruit was highest for the plants treated with Borax (0.5%) and Zinc sulphate (0.5%) foliar spray. Foot rot and leaf spot incidence were observed in the papaya field. Proper plant protection measures controlled the infestation which was less than 1 percent. The highest net income and B:C ratio was observed with the foliar application of Borax (0.5%), Zinc sulphate (0.5%) and Calcium nitrate (0.5%). From the above findings, it was concluded that foliar application of Borax (0.5%), Zinc sulphate (0.5%), Calcium nitrate (0.5%) at 4th and 7th months after planting along with the application of organic manure (10 kg FYM plant-1) and NPK (240: 240: 480 g plant-1 year-1) had increased the growth, yield and quality characteristics of papaya and it was economically viable too.ThesisItem Open Access Production technology and crop improvement of passion fruit (Passiflora edulis Sims.)(Department of Fruit Science, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, 2020) Annjoe V, Joseph; KAU; Shobana, APassion fruit (Passiflora edulis Sims.) belonging to the family Passifloraceae is most accepted for fresh consumption and for various processed products. Passion fruit cultivation is gaining popularity among farmers due to its adaptability under humid tropical conditions and presence of nutritional and therapeutic components. The present study was undertaken in passion fruit with the objectives to evaluate performance of different genotypes, hybridization for development of superior types, standardize the nutrient requirement and propagation method through stem cuttings. Eight passion fruit accessions collected from different locations of Kerala were evaluated for vegetative, flower, yield and fruit characters. Flower characters did not show significant variation, while, the yield and fruit characters exhibited variations among the eight accessions evaluated. Pollen storage studies conducted revealed that passion fruit pollen can be stored over calcium chloride in a desiccator under refrigerated condition for 72 hours with 50.88 per cent pollen viability. Accessions 7 and 5, which were early to flower (157.33 days and 160.33 days), early to fruit (159.67 days and 163.33 days) and early to harvest (63 days and 67 days) were identified as early bearing types. The number of fruits per vine per year recorded was maximum in Accession 4 (155.33), which was on par with Accession 2 (149.33) and Accession 6 (146.67). Peak fruiting was observed from the month of June to September. Accession 3 (yellow) and Accession 4 (purple) were found to be superior in fruit characters. Accessions 2, 4, 5 and 8 with high juice content and thin rind can be utilized for processing and value addition. Accession 5 with improved quality parameters like high non-reducing sugar (5.92 %), sugar acid ratio (4.97), TSS (17.33 ◦Brix), total sugars (13.55 %) and lower acidity (2.73 %) was identified as a superior selection based on quality parameters. Correlation studies showed that yield/vine had significant and positive correlation with fruit diameter, fruit girth, fruit weight, pulp weight and juice weight. Rind thickness was found to have significant positive correlation with shelf life. The study revealed that considerable variability existed among the different accessions of passion fruit. The accessions which recorded high yield viz., Accession 2, 4 and 6 can be used for further crop improvement programmes to develop superior passion fruit varieties. Hybridization work was carried out using six selected superior accessions maintained at Malanadu passion fruit plantation, Idukki, which resulted in the development of one selfed progeny and 8 hybrids. The hybrids and selfed progeny were evaluated for three months at nursery stage and in the field in the college orchard, COH, Vellanikkara for one year. Peak flowering and fruiting periods were observed during March - May. Maximum number of fruits were recorded in hybrids viz., H3 (P4 x P6), H4 (P5 x P4), H5 (P6 x P1) and H8 (P6 x P5). With regard to fruit characters, hybrid H6 (P6 x P2), was observed to be the best, with highest fruit weight, fruit girth, fruit diameter and pulp weight, which also had maximum overall acceptability in sensory evaluation. Fertilizer trial was conducted at four different levels of NPK in the variety 134P. Among the phenological characters, duration of flowering to harvest varied significantly. Higher number of fruits per vine (165.50) was recorded with application of 50 N: 20 P2O5: 50 K2O g vine-1 (T4), which was on par with the treatments applied with 37.5 N: 15 P2O5: 37.5 K2O g vine-1 (T3) and 25 N: 10 P2O5: 25 K2O g vine-1 (T2). The treatment which received 50 N: 20 P2O5: 50 K2O g vine-1 was found to be significantly superior with respect to fruit diameter, fruit girth and rind weight. Application of 50 N: 20 P2O5: 50 K2O g vine-1 resulted in high TSS (19.15 °Brix), total sugars (13.38 %) and reducing sugars (8.76 %). In the organoleptic evaluation, maximum score was observed for the fruits from the plots which received fertilizers of 37.5 N:15 P2O5: 37.5 K2O g vine-1. The presence of number of nodes in the stem cuttings, different concentrations of NAA and their interaction were found to have significant effect on the survival percentage and shoot and root parameters of the rooted cuttings. Four noded cutting recorded maximum survival per cent (70.60 %), total leaf area (166.15 cm2) and shoot length (28.75 cm). Among the different concentrations of NAA, survival percentage, root length and total leaf area, NAA 800 ppm was found significantly superior. The study revealed that four noded cuttings dipped (quick dip method) in 600 ppm NAA could be used for the large scale multiplication of passion fruit plants for commercial cultivation.ThesisItem Open Access Evaluation of promising accession of papaya (Carica papaya L.) cultivation in north Kerala(Department of Fruit Science, College of Agriculture, Padannakkad, 2020) Akhil, P; KAU; Satheeshan, K NPapaya (Carica papaya L.), is an important fruit crop cultivated in the tropical and subtropical regions due to its versatile uses, high palatability, nutritional and health benefits. Even though India is a major producer of papaya in the world, in Kerala, it is yet to assume the status of a commercial fruit crop. Lack of availability of varieties/types adapted to climatic conditions in Kerala and dependency on private breeders for seeds are the challenges for its commercial cultivation. However, there is a growing interest among farmer’s in Kerala to take up its cultivation in an orchard scale recently due to its ease of growing and economic potential. In this context, the present investigation on evaluation of selected papaya cultivars/types/varieties is proposed with an objective to find out genotypes suitable for cultivation in Northern zone of Kerala. The study entitled “Evaluation of promising accessions of papaya (Carica papaya L.) for cultivation in North Kerala” was conducted at the Department of Pomology and Floriculture, College of Agriculture, Padannakkad, Kasaragod and Regional Agricultural Research Station, Pilicode during the period from 2017 to 2019. The experiment was laid out in RBD with 12 treatments and 3 replication. The treatments included six promising papaya genotypes selected from the Kasaragod district, one accession already found to be promising from the KAU main campus, Vellanikkara., four released varieties namely Pusa Nanha, Arka Prabhath, CO-8, CO-2 and Red lady (F1 hybrid) from private breeder company. Among the accessions/varieties, Pusa Nanha (1.70 m), Acc. 6 (1.84 m) and Red lady (1.88 m) were shorter in terms of plant height. Flowering and fruiting occurred at the lowest height in Pusa Nanha followed by Acc. 6, which is a positive character for easy harvesting of fruits. Maximum fruit weight was recorded in PusaNanha(1866.67g), Acc.5 (1766.67g), Acc. 4 (1346.67 g). Highest number of fruits was recorded in KAU Acc. 1 (20.67), Acc.6 (20.27) and Acc.4 (19.40). Fruit yield per plant was highest in Acc.5 (26.93kg), Acc.4 (26.23kg) and Acc.6 (23.50kg), PusaNanha (22.47kg). Shelf life of fruits at ambient conditions was maximum in Acc.6(8.70) which was on par with Acc.2 (8.53) and Arka Prabhath (8.23). Among the 12 papaya accessions/varieties evaluated for organoleptic analysis, the most preferred taste and overall acceptance was recorded by Acc.6 followed by Red lady. When value added to papaya jam, best taste, flavour and overall acceptance was recorded in Red lady followed by Acc. 6. Biochemical analysis revealed that the highest fibre content was observed in Acc.6 (1.27%) followed by CO 8 (1.19) and Acc.2 (1.11%) which were on par with Acc.6. The maximum per cent of reducing sugar was recorded by Red lady (9.46 %) which was on par with CO 8 (9.45 %), Acc. 2 (9.39 %), KAU Acc. 1 (9.32%), Acc. 6 (9.32 %) and Arka Prabhath (9.13 %). Total sugar content was maximum in Red lady (10.12 %) which was on par with Acc.6 (10.10%), CO 8 (9.95%), Arka Prabhath (9.75%) and KAU Acc. 1 (9.71%). The highest carotenoid content was observed in CO 8 (3.18 mg/ 100g) which was on par with Arka Prabhath (3.14 mg/ 100g) followed by Acc. 6 (2.87 mg/100g) and Red lady (2.50 mg/100g). The lycopene content was maximum in CO 8 (1.72 mg/ 100g)which was on par with Red lady(1.62 mg/ 100g) followed by Arka Prabhath (1.36mg/ 100g), and Acc. 6 (1.12 mg/ 100g) which were on par. Highest ascorbic acid content was observed in Acc.4 (93.37 mg/ 100g). In this study, six accessions, five varieties and one promising accession reported earlier from the main campus, Vellanikkara, KAU were evaluated and the study revealed that Acc. 6 (local genotype collected from Kasaragod) as the most promising compared to all other genotypes for higher yield with consumer preference for cultivation in North Kerala. This accession was found to be better with respect to short stature (1.84 m), number of fruits (20.27), yield (23.50 kg) , Organoleptic test (Score-8.52) and good shelf life (8.70 days) and nutritional qualities such as high fibre content, carotenoid content and lycopene content.ThesisItem Open Access Developement of micropropagation protocol for jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.)(Department of Fruit Science, College of Agriculture, Padannakkad, 2020) Karishma, N A.; KAU; Meera Manjusha, A VThe present study entitled, “Development of micropropagation protocol for jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.)” was conducted at tissue culture laboratory, Regional Agricultural Research Station, Pilicode, Kasaragod, during 2018-2020. All the experiments were laid out in completely randomized design. The first experiment was done with the objective to find out the best medium for culture establishment. The treatment combinations include T₁: MS medium with 2 mg/L BA, T₂: ½ MS medium with 2 mg/L BA, T₃: Modified with 2 mg/L BA, T₄: Woody plant medium with 2 mg/L BA, T₅: Gamborge B₅ medium with 2 mg/L BA replicated four times. The result revealed that T1 took minimum days for shoot emergence (13.16), shoot multiplication & branching (15.83), produced maximum no. of shoots/ explant (1.83), Shoot length (1.13cm) and no. of leaves/ shoot (1.66). Second experiment was done with the objective to find out effect of growth regulator for shoot multiplication with 5 treatments replicated four times. The treatment combinations included T₁: Selected basal medium, T₂: Best medium from the 1st experiment, T₃: T₂ + 1 mg/L BA, T₄: T₂ + 2 mg/L BA, T₅: T₂ + 3 mg/L BA. The study clearly indicated that T₃ showed better response in multiplication in terms of minimum days for shoot emergence (13), no. of shoots/ explant (1.99), no. of leaves/ shoot (1.66) and highest shoot length was noticed in T2 (1.13). Another combination of growth regulators were also tried for multiplication with 8 treatments replicated thrice. The treatment combinations included T1 : MS medium + 1mg/L BA + 0.35mg/L GA3, T2 : MS medium + 1.5mg/L BA + 0.35mg/L GA3, T3 : MS medium + 2mg/L BA + 0.35mg/L GA3, T4 : MS medium + 2.5mg/L BA + 0.35 mg/L GA3, T5 : MS medium + 3mg/L BA + 0.35mg/L GA3, T6 : MS medium + 3.5mg/L BA + 0.35mg/L GA3, T7 : MS medium + 4mg/L BA + 0.35mg/L GA3, T8 : MS medium + 4.5mg/L BA + 0.35mg/L GA3. Results shows that MS medium + 2.5mg/L BA + 0.35 mg/L GA3 found to be superior in terms of minimum days for shoot emergence (8.22 days), highest shoot length(2.26 cm), no. of leaves/ explant (4.44) and MS medium + 3mg/L BA + 0.35mg/L GA3 produced maximum no. of shoots/ explant (3.88). Third experiment was conducted with the objective to find out best growth regulator for rooting with nine treatments replicated thrice. Treatment combinations included T₁: ½ strength of selected basal medium, T₂: T₁ + 1 mg/L NAA, T₃: T₁ + 3 mg/L NAA, T₄: T₁ + 0.5 mg/L IBA, T₅: T₁ + 1 mg/L IBA, T₆: T₁ + 1 mg/L NAA + 0.5 mg/L IBA, T₇: T₁ + 1 mg/L NAA + 1 mg/L IBA, T₈: T₁ + 3 mg/L NAA + 0.5 mg/L IBA,T₉: T₁ + 3 mg/L NAA + 1 mg/L IBA. 0.4 g/L of activated charcoal was added to each treatment. None of the treatments produced roots. Another combination of growth regulators were also tried for rooting with eight treatments replicated thrice. The treatment combinations include T₁: MS + 2.5 mg/L BA + 0.35 mg/L GA3 + 1 mg/L NAA, T₂: MS + 2.5 mg/L BA + 0.35 mg/L GA3 + 3 mg/L NAA, T₃: MS + 2.5 mg/L BA + 0.35 mg/L GA3 + 0.5 mg/L IBA, T₄: MS + 2.5 mg/L BA + 0.35 mg/L GA3 + 1 mg/L IBA, T₅: MS + 2.5 mg/L BA + 0.35 mg/L GA3 + 1 mg/L NAA + 0.5 mg/L IBA, T₆: MS + 2.5 mg/L BA + 0.35 mg/L GA3 + 1 mg/L NAA + 1 mg/L IBA, T₇: MS + 2.5 mg/L BA + 0.35 mg/L GA3 + 3 mg/L NAA + 0.5 mg/L IBA, T₈: MS + 2.5 mg/L BA + 0.35 mg/L GA3 + 3 mg/L NAA + 1 mg/L IBA. Rooting was not observed in all the treatment. It can be concluded that among the basal medium, MS medium fortified with 2 mg/L BA is good for culture establishment. MS medium fortified with 2.5-3 mg/L BA along with 0.35 mg/L GA3 can be used for shoot multiplication. Rooting was not observed because of basal callus formation and phenolic exudation.
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