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Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur
The history of agricultural education in Kerala can be traced back to the year 1896 when a scheme was evolved in the erstwhile Travancore State to train a few young men in scientific agriculture at the Demonstration Farm, Karamana, Thiruvananthapuram, presently, the Cropping Systems Research Centre under Kerala Agricultural University. Agriculture was introduced as an optional subject in the middle school classes in the State in 1922 when an Agricultural Middle School was started at Aluva, Ernakulam District. The popularity and usefulness of this school led to the starting of similar institutions at Kottarakkara and Konni in 1928 and 1931 respectively.
Agriculture was later introduced as an optional subject for Intermediate Course in 1953. In 1955, the erstwhile Government of Travancore-Cochin started the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, Thiruvananthapuram and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences at Mannuthy, Thrissur for imparting higher education in agricultural and veterinary sciences, respectively. These institutions were brought under the direct administrative control of the Department of Agriculture and the Department of Animal Husbandry, respectively. With the formation of Kerala State in 1956, these two colleges were affiliated to the University of Kerala. The post-graduate programmes leading to M.Sc. (Ag), M.V.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees were started in 1961, 1962 and 1965 respectively.
On the recommendation of the Second National Education Commission (1964-66) headed by Dr. D.S. Kothari, the then Chairman of the University Grants Commission, one Agricultural University in each State was established. The State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) were established in India as an integral part of the National Agricultural Research System to give the much needed impetus to Agriculture Education and Research in the Country. As a result the Kerala Agricultural University (KAU) was established on 24th February 1971 by virtue of the Act 33 of 1971 and started functioning on 1st February 1972. The Kerala Agricultural University is the 15th in the series of the SAUs.
In accordance with the provisions of KAU Act of 1971, the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, were brought under the Kerala Agricultural University. In addition, twenty one agricultural and animal husbandry research stations were also transferred to the KAU for taking up research and extension programmes on various crops, animals, birds, etc.
During 2011, Kerala Agricultural University was trifurcated into Kerala Veterinary and Animal Sciences University (KVASU), Kerala University of Fisheries and Ocean Studies (KUFOS) and Kerala Agricultural University (KAU).
Now the University has seven colleges (four Agriculture, one Agricultural Engineering, one Forestry, one Co-operation Banking & Management), six RARSs, seven KVKs, 15 Research Stations and 16 Research and Extension Units under the faculties of Agriculture, Agricultural Engineering and Forestry. In addition, one Academy on Climate Change Adaptation and one Institute of Agricultural Technology offering M.Sc. (Integrated) Climate Change Adaptation and Diploma in Agricultural Sciences respectively are also functioning in Kerala Agricultural University.
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ThesisItem Open Access Qualitative changes of yoghurt prepared from milk preserved by different methods(Department of Dairy Science, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences,Mannuthy, 1990) Prasad, V; KAU; Sukumaran, M VAn experiment was conducted to study the qualitative changes of yoghurt prepared from milk preserved by different methods. An attempt was also made to study the efficiency of LP system in controlling psychrotrops in refrigerated milk thereby extending the keeping quality of such stored milk. The efficacy of the system was compared with pasteurized milk and raw milk stored under similar conditions. An exhaustive review of literature has been presented on the use of various preservation methods employed in milk, quality of yoghurt and other related aspects. The methods of analyses of some important components of milk and yoghurt has been detailed. The milk after collection were divided into three portions and used for various treatments A (raw milk as such), B (laboratory pasteurized) and C )LP activated). Samples in each treatment were again divided into four parts and stored under refrigeration for 0, 24, 48 and 72 hours for further analysis and yoghurt preparation. When raw milk was stored under refrigeration, acidity developed to a significantly high level (P < 0.05) at the end of 72 hours of storage whereas no significant increase in activity was noticed in treatments B and C. This result was corroborated by a decrease in both psychrotrophic and total bacterial counts in milk under treatments B and C. So it was concluded that the development of acidity in treatment A could be due to bultiplication of microbes particularly psychrotrophs. In B and C its growth was arrested by the treatments. Hydrogen peroxide and thiocyanate were detected in all raw milk samples at a level of 3.78 and 7.33 ppm respectively. The level of H2 O2 and SCN – used for the activation of LP system for the study were found to be adequate, since the psychrotrophic count in milk at the end of 72 hours in treatment C was less than that found in treatment B. The residual H2 O2 and SCN – contents at the end of 72 hours were found to be within the normal level found in milk thus having no health hazards, by this method of preservation. When yoghurt samples were prepared from stored milk no significant differences between treatments were noticed in the values of fermentation period, acidity, pH, total proteins and total solids. A significant increase in NPN and tyrosine values were noticed in yoghurt prepared from milk under treatment A indicating extensive proteolysis in milk during storage under this treatment. However, no difference was noticed between treatments B and C. Diacetyl and acetaldehyde were produced at a desirable level in yoghurt samples under all the three treatments. A proper ratio of Str. Thermophiles – 6 and L. bulgaricus – 4 was found to be maintained in all yoghurt samples. On organoleptic evaluation the yoghurt prepared from milk under treatment C could not be distinguished from other two treatments. In fact, yoghurt under C got a higher total score on organoleptic evaluation than A and B. Low score for body and texture, and falvour was observed under treatment A. This may be attributed to the effect of growth of psychrotrophs in raw milk during refrigeration. From the results, it was concluded that good quality yoghurt can be prepared from milk stored under refrigeration following pasteurization or LP activation. Yoghurt samples prepared from milk stored under treatment A was found to be of inferior quality when compared to B and C. The result also confirmed that LP system can be recommended as a safe preservative for extending storage life of refrigerated milk. When such stored milk was used for yoghurt production, no significant difference in the quality was noticed when compared to yoghurt under treatment B. Suggesting that LP activated milk can be conveniently and economically used for the production of fermented milk products like yoghurt without any apparent harmful effect.ThesisItem Open Access Studies on the influence of tannins on nucleic acid and protein syntheses in ruminants(Faculty of Dairy and Animal Husbandry, Haryana, 1976) Sadanandan, K P; KAU; Arora, S PA study was conducted to elucidate the influence of tannins on synthesis of nucleic acids and protein in liver of rats. In vitro and in vivo studies in buffaloes were also conducted to ascertain the effect of tannins on rumen metabolism. In experiment 1, 30 weanling rats were distributed into three groups of 10 each in a randomized block design. The influence of addition of 0% (group A), 2.5% (group B) and 5% (group C) tennins in the feed on feed consumption, growth rate, nitrogen and dry matter digestibility was investigated. Further RNA, DNA and protein in liver were estimated to asses liver function. The feed consumed daily on DM basis (g); weight gain per three day interval (g); and gram feed per gram weight gain, respectively for groups A, B and C were : 20.05 + 7.6, 7.87 + 0.41, 2.73 +0.05; 16.66 + 6.0, 5.69 + 0.35, 3.14 + 0.07 and 16.11 + 5.4, 4.53 + 0.21, 3.80 + 0.11. The DM and N digestibility (%), respectively for groups A, B and C were: 78.56 + 0.44, 78.28 + 0.56; 78.62 + 0.64, 73.50 + 0.86 and 78.82 + 0.52, 69.97 +0.75. Feed consumption in group A was significantly (P <0.01) higher than in group B and C. The difference in feed consumption between groups B and C was not significant. Significant differences were found amongst all treatment groups in weight gain (P< 0.05) and food : gain ratios (P < 0.01). DH digestibility did not reveal any significant difference between groups whereas the differences in N-digestibility were significant (P<0.01). The addition of tennis in the diet significantly depressed feed consumption, weight gain, and N – digestibility which resulted in widened feed : gain ratios. The average liver weights (g): total protein (mg) ; RNA (mg) and DNA (mg), respectively for groups A, B and C were : 3.61 + 0.21, 717.3 + 4.76, 21.42 + 1.41, 5.36 + 0.41, 2.85 + 0.23, 569.0 + 4.31, 16.40 + 1.60, 4.29 + 0.45 and 2.44 + 0.01, 507.9 + 2.55, 13.79 + 0.58, 3.34 + 0.16. The liver weight in group A was significatly (P<0.05) higher than in group C. The total protein content in group A was significatly (P<0.01) higher than in group B and C. But the difference between groups B and C was not significant. RNA and DNA contents differed significantly (P<0.01) amongst the three groups. The average protein (mg), RNA (mg) and DNA (mg), respectively for the groups A, B and C were : 198.69 + 3.31, 5.93 + 0.18, 1.48 + 0.05, 199.89 + 5.14, 5.68 + 0.16, 1.49 + 0.06 and 208.16 + 2.32, 5.66 + 0.03, 1.38 + 0.04 per gram of tissue. There were no significant differences in the parameters studied amongst the three groups. The body weight : liver weight ratios, protein : RNA ratios and protein : DNA ratios, respectively for groups A, B and C were : 29.0 + 2.23, 33.2 + 1.01, 134.9 + 5.04, 30.3 + 2.45, 35.4 + 1.22, 136.7 + 5.75 and 31.0 + 2.66, 36.9 + 1.01, 153.7 + 4.17. There were no significant differences amongst the ratios except that protein : DNA ratio in group C was significantly (P<0.05) wider than in group A and B indicating probable hypertrophy of liver cells in that group. It was apparent that tannins exerted their harmful effects by affecting protein digestibility in the gastro-intestinal tract and thereby adversely affected liver size and growth rate. In experiment 2, in vitro trials were conducted by taking buffalo rumen liquor through a rumen fistula on a control ration without tannic acid. For N solubility and DH digestibility studies, the substrate used was : Maize, 50 parts ; grount nut cake, 21 parts and wheat bran 26 parts, ground into 40 mesh size. To study the influence of tannins on protein synthesis, nucleic acid synthesis and production of VFA, the substrates used were : cellulose 0.75 g. starch 0.25 g and ammonium sulphate 151 mg. McDougall’s artificial saliva was used as buffer (PH 6.8) for 32 P uptake by rumen microbes, the substrate was prepared from glucose 600 mg and ammonium sulphate 85mg. A mineral solution containing cysterine – HCL described by Bucholts and Bergan (1973) was used as a buffer. The levels of tannic acid, respectively in groups 1,2,3,4 and 5 were : 0, 1.25, 2.5, 5.0 and 7.5% in all the experiments. The E solubility and DM digestibility (%) respectively, for treatments 1,2,3,4 and 5 were : 36.72 + 0.425, 43.80 + 2.63 : 24.48 + 0.311, 37.60 + 2.14, 20.81 + 0.589, 30.27 + 1.85 : 17.55 + 0.312, 21.89 + 1.93 and 15.30 + 0.473, 13.20 + 1.15. Addition of tannins depressed N solubility and DM digestibility. The protein – N (mg) ; RNA – N (mg): DNA-N (mg) and TVFA (meq) (all per 100 ml) respectively for treatments 1,2,3,4 and 5 were : 30.19 + 1.274, 2.156 +0.107, 0.795 + 0.054, 15.46 + 0.315, 23.84 + 1.021, 1.565 + 0.101, 0.561 + 0.025, 12.34 + 0.194, 18.59 + 0.582, 1.185 + 0.046, 0.426 +0.021, 9.38 + 0.425, 16.27 + 1.318, 1.00 + 0.042; 0.337 + 0.013, 7.29 + 0.359 and 14.61 + 0.271, 0.865 + 0.034, 0.290 + 0.006, 5.49 + 0.235. Addition of tannins significantly (p<0.01) depressed all the parameters studied and in treatment 5, the levels were more or less the same as in 0 hour control indicating complete inhibition of microbial multiplication at 7.5% tannic acid level. The RNA –N : protein – N, DNA – N: protein – N and total nucleic acid – N: protein – N ratios respectively for treatments 1,2,3,4 and 5 were : 0.072 + 0.0018, 0.026+ 0.0013, 0.098 + 0.0015, 0.066 + 0.0018, 0.023 + 0.0045, 0.089 + 0.0022; 0.064 + 0.0018, 0.023 +0.00084, 0.087 + 0.0024, 0.062 + 0.0016, 0.021 + 0.00077, 0.082 +0.0020 and 0.058 + 0.0013, 0.020 + 0.00055, 0.078 + 0.0016. The ratios were narrower in control group when compared to tannic acid groups. With regards to 32P uptake by rumen microbes, a progressive decrease was observed with increase in tannin concentration. 32p uptake (mg) per 100 ml respectively for groups 1,2,3 and 4 were : 2.640, 1.835, 1.202 and 0.52. In group 5 there was no 32P uptake. Tannins depressed microbial multiplication indirectly by making the protein source not available due to its precipitation. Direct harmful effect was also possible on microbes, especially, at higher concentrations of tannins in the media without any protein source. In experiment 3, four adult fistulated female buffaloes were randomly distributed in a Latin square design. The treatments I, II, III and IV respectively contained 0, 1.25, 2.5 and 5% tannins made available from 0, 14, 28 and 40% salseed meal in the ration. In treatment IV, 1.436% pure tannic acid was also added to get 5% total tannins. The DCP and TDN contents were approximately 14 and 72% in all the rations. The effect of tannins in feeds was determined through the levels of protein –N, RNA – N, DNA –N and TVFA. The protein –N, RNA – N and DNA-N levels ( all in mg per 100 ml of SRL) and TVFA levels ( meq/100 ml of SRL), respectively for treatments I,II,III and IV were : 43.73 + 1.813, 3.86 + 0.134, 1.63 + 0.053, 9.59 + 0.205; 49.087 + 1.912, 3.75 +0.115, 1.59 + 0.057, 0.43 + 0.215, 54.86 + 1.850, 3.62 + 0.089, 1.50 +0.041, 9.20 +0.188 and 61.89 + 2.050, 3.26 + 0.097, 1.37 + 0.046, 8.48 + 0.283. Protein - N level in treatment L was significantly (P< 0.05) lessthan in ratios II, III and IV and there was a progressive and significant (P< 0.05) increase in order of treatments. RNA – N and TVFA levels in treatment I were significantly higher (P< 0.01) than in treatment IV. DNA levels were significantly lesser (P<0.05) in treatment III than in treatment I and again lower in treatment IV than in treatment III. Nucleic acid - N : protein – N ratios is SRL respectively for treatments I, II, III and IV were : 0.125 + 0.0012, 0.108 + 0.0020, 0.093 + 0.0026 and 0.072 + 0.0011. The ratio in treatment L was significantly higher than in treatments II, III and IV. The differences amongst the four treatments were significant (P<0.01). Addition of tannins in the rations resulted in an increase in protein - N, but progressively depressed the RNA – N and DNA – N levels with less production of TVFA. Further in experiment 3, the protein - N, RNA – N and DNA – N contents of bacteria separated from SRL were also determined to ascertain the effect of tannins on RNA – N: protein – N; DNA – N : protein – N and total nucleic acid : protein - N ratios. Protein – N (mg), RNA – N (mg); and DNA –N (mg) in bacteria separated from 100 ml SRL respectively for treatments I, II,III and IV were : 23.93 + 0.571, 2.385 + 0.87, 1.204 + 0.036, 23.71 + 0.627, 2.296 +0.062, 1.180 + 0.019, 22.79 +0.590, 2.230 +0.044, 1.111 + 0.059 and 20.91 + 0.544, 205 + 0.046, 1.010 + 0.053. Protein -N, RNA –N and DNA – N levels decreased as levels of tannins in rations increased. But the differences were significant (P<0.01) only between treatment I and IV. RNA – N : protein - N, and total nucleic acid – N : protein – N ratios respectively for treatments I, II, III and IV were : 0.099 + 0.0030, 0.150 +0.0027; 0.097 + 0.0023, 0.147 + 0.0029; 0.098 + 0.0024, 0.147 + 0.0017 and 0.098 + 0.0020, 0.146 +0.0025. The differences in the ratios amongst the different treatments were not statistically significant. The addition of tannins at the levels tried had no significant influence on the nucleic acid – N : protein – N ratios in the bacteria. From the value obtained for nucleic acid – N and nucleic acid – N : protein – N ratios in separated bacteria, the microbial contribution of protein - N to the tungestic acid precipitate of SRL was calculated. The values obtained were : 83.67, 74.01, 63.58 and 51.14 % for treatments I,II,III and IV respectively. The tannins present is the feed partially protected the proteins from microbial attack and hence the contribution of dietary protein - N in the SRL increased. Simultaneously the quantity of microbial protein synthesis decreased due to the limitations imposed by tannins on microbial multiplication.ThesisItem Open Access Detergent potential of enzymes of dairy microflora and their effect on the shelf life of milk products(Department of Dairy Science, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 2010) Beena, A K; KAU; Geevarghese, P IA study was conducted to assess the detergent potential of a spoilage protease enzyme obtained from the microflora of dairy plant environment. An attempt was also made to study the impact of selected enzyme producers on the shelf life of curd (dahi) and sterilised skim milk. A total of 71 bacterial isolates obtained from dairy environment were screened for their ability to produce spoilage enzymes like proteases lipases and lecithinases. Based on the spoilage potential, Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P12) isolated from pasteurised milk and Bacillus cereus (S4) isolated from sterilized skim milk were selected for further work. The influence of spoilage enzymes on selected physico-chemical characteristics of curd (dahi) and sterilized skim milk was evaluated by preparing the products from milk precultured with isolate P12 and S4. In general, proteolysis of milk was found to have an adverse effect on the quality of products. The stimulatory effect of proteolytic products of P12 and S4 on curd starters was evident from the higher values of acidity, firmness and syneresis in treated curd. The spoilage enzymes adversely affected the overall quality and shelf life of curd. In treated sterilised milk, tyrosine and NPN values were highly elevated. A linear correlation was found to exist between off-flavour and proteolysis. Curd and sterilised skim milk prepared from milk precultured with proteolytic organism were significantly different from that of control. The possibility of exploiting an alkaline protease from spoilage organism in dairy plant sanitation was also looked into. Environmental conditions for the production of alkaline protease by a psychrotrophic strain of Bacillus cereus (S4) was optimised in whey based medium. The protease used in this trial preferred an alkaline medium to remain stable. The enzyme was found to be stable over a wide temperature range of -10°C to 80°C and a pH range of 7.0 to 12.0. The metal ions Ca++, Mg++, Zn++ and Hg++ enhanced the enzyme activity. Lack of inhibition by Hg++ suggested lack of disulphide bonds in the active site of enzyme. Significant inhibition of activity by serine inhibitors indicated an essential serine residue in the active site of enzyme. The deleterious effect of EDTA on enzyme activity showed the supportive role of divalent cations. Marked residual activity on treatment with β-mercaptoethanol indicated the absence of cysteine residue for the enzyme. Enhancement of protease activity in the presence of surfactants and stability in the presence of H2O2 signified its potential to be used as detergent additive. Qualitative assessment of cleaning efficiency of inbuilt formulation substantiated the superiority of enzyme based formulations. Ammonium sulphate fractionation, dialysis and gel filtation using seralose 4B and Seralose 6B were effective in purifying the protease preparation by 141.31 fold. The purified protease was found to be a homogenous preparation of molecular weight of 50.5 kDa as determined by SDS PAGE.ThesisItem Open Access Development and evaluation of different vaccines against duck pasteurellosis(Department of Dairy Science, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 2010) Jesto, George; KAU; Krishnan NairThis study was undertaken to develop biofilm vaccines against duck pasteurellosis using oil, saponin and aluminium hydroxide as adjuvants and to experimentally evaluate their immunogenicity in ducks. Identity of P. multocida serotype A: 1 (DP1) used for study was confirmed by biochemical tests and by PM-PCR and pathogenicity was established in Swiss albino mice before vaccine production. The LD50 (11 w) of the DP1 isolate determined was 10 CFU / bird and MDT was 23.75 h in 11 week old ducklings when a high dose of 3 X 10 6 CFU of P. multocida per bird was given. At 11 Weeks age MDT gradually increased as the dose of inoculum decreased. In 21 week old ducks, the LD50 (21w) of the isolate DP1 was estimated to be 3 ×108 CFU of P. multocida and it showed that the Kuttanad duck had decreased susceptibility to pasteurellosis with age. On light microscopic studies planktonic cells appeared to be Gram negative coccobacillary, while biofilm cells were Gram negative and pleomorphic. Electron microscopic studies revealed that P. multocida could form well differentiated classic biofilm and 0.32 per cent TSB media supplemented 0.5 per cent chitin seemed to be excellent medium for biofilm formation by P. multocida. Four different vaccines viz. OV, OBV, SV and SAV were prepared and all of them were found to be sterile and safe. The oil adjuvanted vaccines (OV and OBV) offered better protection compared to saponin and aluminium hydroxide adjuvanted vaccine groups (SV and SAV) following primary vaccination, up to seven weeks. The modified oil adjuvanted vaccine prepared was not only found to be homogenous, but also more efficient in stimulating a humoral immune response and hence may be recommended. The oil adjuvanation gave better protection than saponin and aluminium hydroxide adjuvanation. The SAV gave better protection than SV which might be due to the presence of aluminium hydroxide which potentiated the immunostimulating ability of saponin. The combined vaccine (SAV) although was found to be better than single vaccine (SV) they cannot be used as a substitute to oil adjuvanted vaccines. The booster vaccination was found to have added advantageous effect on protection and is a must, to prevent losses. Pasteurella biofilms although found to be weak in inducing a primary immune response had the potency to evoke a more powerful secondary response compared to planktonic cells. Vaccination done at six weeks age followed by booster vaccination at 16 weeks age seemed to be a better modification of existing schedule and may be recommended. In histopathological studies, lymphoid hyperplasia was observed in spleen in survived control birds and in SV and SAV vaccine groups that did not survive challenge test, which indicated the persistence of Pasteurella organisms through mild infection in them following experimental challenge. Lymphoid depletion was observed in caecal tonsil in experimental pasteurellosis as in spleen. As the survived vaccinated birds following challenge test showed normal intact caecal tonsil, the course of disease and lesions might be less prominent in vaccinated birds during infection process. The well developed bursa observed in OV and OBV birds that survived challenge test indicated that the humoral immune response was well induced in them compared to other groups. The designed primers E1 and E2 amplified the gene E and hence, this pair of primers could be used for the production of amplified Gene E sequences for further studies on recombinant ghost system. In conclusion, 0.32 per cent TSB media supplemented 0.5 per cent chitin seemed to be an excellent medium that support classical biofilm formation by P. multocida. Booster vaccination definitely had added advantageous effect on protection. Immunization at 6 weeks of age with OV followed by booster vaccination at 16 weeks age with OBV seemed to be a better modification of existing schedule and may be recommended. In histopathological studies, the lesions were less prominent in vaccinated birds than control birds which indicated that the vaccines were effective.ThesisItem Open Access Somatic cell count and its influence on the quality of milk in cross-bred cows(Kerala Agricultural University;Thrissur, 2001) Sathian, C.T.; KAU; Mukundan, M
