Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur

The history of agricultural education in Kerala can be traced back to the year 1896 when a scheme was evolved in the erstwhile Travancore State to train a few young men in scientific agriculture at the Demonstration Farm, Karamana, Thiruvananthapuram, presently, the Cropping Systems Research Centre under Kerala Agricultural University. Agriculture was introduced as an optional subject in the middle school classes in the State in 1922 when an Agricultural Middle School was started at Aluva, Ernakulam District. The popularity and usefulness of this school led to the starting of similar institutions at Kottarakkara and Konni in 1928 and 1931 respectively. Agriculture was later introduced as an optional subject for Intermediate Course in 1953. In 1955, the erstwhile Government of Travancore-Cochin started the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, Thiruvananthapuram and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences at Mannuthy, Thrissur for imparting higher education in agricultural and veterinary sciences, respectively. These institutions were brought under the direct administrative control of the Department of Agriculture and the Department of Animal Husbandry, respectively. With the formation of Kerala State in 1956, these two colleges were affiliated to the University of Kerala. The post-graduate programmes leading to M.Sc. (Ag), M.V.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees were started in 1961, 1962 and 1965 respectively. On the recommendation of the Second National Education Commission (1964-66) headed by Dr. D.S. Kothari, the then Chairman of the University Grants Commission, one Agricultural University in each State was established. The State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) were established in India as an integral part of the National Agricultural Research System to give the much needed impetus to Agriculture Education and Research in the Country. As a result the Kerala Agricultural University (KAU) was established on 24th February 1971 by virtue of the Act 33 of 1971 and started functioning on 1st February 1972. The Kerala Agricultural University is the 15th in the series of the SAUs. In accordance with the provisions of KAU Act of 1971, the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, were brought under the Kerala Agricultural University. In addition, twenty one agricultural and animal husbandry research stations were also transferred to the KAU for taking up research and extension programmes on various crops, animals, birds, etc. During 2011, Kerala Agricultural University was trifurcated into Kerala Veterinary and Animal Sciences University (KVASU), Kerala University of Fisheries and Ocean Studies (KUFOS) and Kerala Agricultural University (KAU). Now the University has seven colleges (four Agriculture, one Agricultural Engineering, one Forestry, one Co-operation Banking & Management), six RARSs, seven KVKs, 15 Research Stations and 16 Research and Extension Units under the faculties of Agriculture, Agricultural Engineering and Forestry. In addition, one Academy on Climate Change Adaptation and one Institute of Agricultural Technology offering M.Sc. (Integrated) Climate Change Adaptation and Diploma in Agricultural Sciences respectively are also functioning in Kerala Agricultural University.

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Open Access
Detritus of plant origin as a food source for Penaeus indicua H. Milne Edwards
(Department of Aquaculture, College of Fisheries, Panangad, 1992) Unnikrishnan, R; KAU; Thampy, D M
The objective of the present study was to evaluate the feasibility of using plant detritus as an exclusive food source for the juvenile of Penaeus indicus and also to find out the level of its in corporation in a standard diet for the prawn in place of animal protein sources. When four plant detritus were simultaneously presented to p.indicus juvenile of size 25-32 mm and 110-150 mg, they exhibited best preference for detritus from Rhizophora apiculata, followed by chromolaena odorta, Pistia stratiotes and paddy detritus. Two better preferred plant detritus sources viz. R.apiculata and C.odorata, were subjected to bulk digestion and the improvement in protein level by way of microbial growth during the process of decay was recorded. Since C.odorata showed a better protein level (Max.av.25.716%) on the fifteenth day than R.apiculata (Max.av.7.528%) on the twentieth day, C.odorata detritus was used for the next two feeding experiments: the first to find whether it could be used as exclusive protein source and the second to find the level at which this could be used to replace animal protein source in a standard diet for P.indicus. The first feeding experiment, for a period of 28 days, to evaluate the feasibility of using plant detritus as sole protein source revealed that an exclusively detritus based diet is not suitable for P.indicus juveniles. The detritus based diet produced lower survival, growth, protein sufficiency ratio, protein digestability and high food conservation ratio when compared to that of control diet prepared with clam meal. The second experiment done with eight diets for a period of 21 days revealed that plant detritus could be used for substituting upto a level of 50% of the animal protein source in a standard prawn diet, without producing any adverse effect on growth and survival. While, a diet containing 10% plant detritus fared even better than a diet which was totally devoid of detrital protein. The growth, food conversation ratio, protein efficiency, apparent digestibility and protein digestibility values obtained for various diets did not vary significantly upto a stage where 50% of the animal protein was substituted with detrital protein, beyond which the values declined. The best values were obtained for the diet FD2 and the lowest for the diet FD8.
Open Access
Protein requirement of the postlarvae and juveniles of Macrobrachium rosenbergii (De Man)
(Department of Aquaculture, College of Fisheries, Panangad, 1992) Sahadevan, P; KAU; Sebastian, M J
Three sets of experiments were conducted with the postlarvae and juveniles of the giant freshwater prawn. Macrobrachiumrosenbergii (De Man). The first experiment was conducted to determine the quantitative protein requirement of the two life stages of the prawn using casein and amino acid based purified diets having graded levels (0, 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50%)of protein. Each experiment was conducted for 40 days and the effect of protein concentration on the survival, growth, food intake, food conversion efficiency, protein digestibility, nitrogen exeretion, nitrogen retension, body carcass composition, efficiency of protein utilization and oxygen – nitrogen ratio was studied. Among the different diets the one with 30% protein produced the best results in the postlarvae and juveniles of the prawn. Using second order polynomial regression analysis and differential calculus methods the protein requirement for maximum growth in the postlarvae and juveniles of the prawn was calculated as 34.5 and 28.5% respectively. In absolute terms these represent 787.9 and 529.0mg protein per 100g body weight of the prawn per day. The economic protein requirement of the postlarvae and juveniles was found to be 27.5 and 23.0% respectively. The maintenance protein requirement of the postlarvae and juveniles was determined to be 17.95 and 18.69mg protein per 100g body weight per day assuming an efficiency of utilization of protein very close to 100%. The metabolic faecal nitrogen excretion was found to be 198 and 151mg N per 100g body weight per day for the postlarvae and juveniles respectively. In the second set of experiments, short term (10 days each) studies were conducted to determine the efficiency of assimilation of certain locally available sources of protein by the postlarvae and juveniles of M. rosenbergii. These experiments were conducted also to help fix the levels of protein to be maintained in the third set of experiments. The protein sources evaluated were casein, prawn meat, clam meat, soybean, ground nut oil cake and black gram. The results of the study indicated that the apparent protein digestibility is not influenced by animal or plant origin of the ingredient. The third set of experiments was conducted to evaluate the effect of substitution of protein of animal origin with that of plant origin in the postlarvae and juveniles of M. rosenbergii. Each experiment was conducted for 40 days and on the basis of data on survival, growth, food intake, food conversion efficiency, protein digestibility, carcass composition, efficiency of protein utilization and oxygen – nitrogen ratio, substitution of 50 and 75% protein of animal origin with that of plant origin was found to result in no significant decline in the overall performance of the postlarvae and juveniles respectively of M. rosenbergii.
Open Access
Evaluation of supplementary feeds and optimum ration for Chanos chanos (Forskal) fry
(Department of Aquaculture, College of Fisheries, Panangad, 1991) Elizabeth, Chrolin; KAU; Susheela, Jose
The present study was conducted in C. chanos fry,to evaluate the efficacy and keeping quality of supplementary feeds compounded from five different protein sources viz., fish meal ( FM ), squid meal (SQM), clam meal (CM), prawnhead waste meal (PHM) and soybean meal (SYM). All the feeds used in the study were isocalorific (3.13 - 3.33 Kcal/g) and isonitrogenous (39.78 - 40.44% crude protein). The quality of feed after four months of storage was satisfactory as there was not much variation in their nutrient contents. The FCR of fish fed on various supplementary feeds for 42 days were 1.74, 2.94, 3.65, 5.32 and 10.9 for CM, SQM, FM, SYM and PHM, Respectively. The PER, protein digestibility co-efficient and 0: N ratio indicate that protein from clam meal is better utilized for growth Purposes than those from others. The PER value ranged from 0.23 (PHM) to 1.45 (CM). The protein digestibility co-efficient, for CM, SQM, FM, SYM and PHM were 97.24,91,86, 86.56, 77.78 and 65.23%, respectively. The 0: N ratio was highest (10.769:1) for fish fed on CM. It seems that C. chanos fry digest lipid from animal protein sources better (digestibility values ranging from 84.17% (PHM) to 98.8% (CM)) than that from plant source SYM (47.49%).The biochemical composition of fish Showed maximum synthesis of protein and deposition of fat in fish fed on CM, followed by SQM, and the least in fish fed on PHM. The evaluation of supplementary feeds based on survival rate, gain in length and weight, and specific growth rate indicate the superior performance of animal protein sources (except prawn head waste meal) to plant source. The highest gain in growth was attained by fish fed on CM, followed by SQM and FM. Performance of fish fed on SYM was not satisfactory, while PHM was a poor feed for C. chanos fry. The optimum food ration of fry is at 5.2% of the body weight when fed with CM, twice a day, at 4-6 ppt salinity.
Open Access
Effect of low salinities on the growth and survival of Penaeus mondon Fabricus
(Department of Aquaculture, College of Fisheries, Panangad, 1988) Navas, K A; KAU; Sebastian, M J
Growth and survival of P.monodon are influenced by a number of ecological factors (Chakraborti et al. 1986) salinity, being one of the most important of them. Knowledge on the tolerance of this species to low salinity conditions has great implications in its culture especially in extending its culture to low saline fields. In the present study, the postlarvae were subjected to wide fluctuations in salinity ranging from 1 to 20ppt. The influence of gradual acclimation in improving ranges of tolerance of postlarvae was studied. The lowest lethal salinity (LC 50) was determined by step-wise reduction of salinity. Salinity in which more than 50% mortality occurred at the end of 120h was considered lethal. Growth of juvenile in different test salinities ranging from 1 to 20 ppt for a period of 56 days was undertaken. Preliminary tolerance studies indicated that fluctuations in salinity ranging from 4 to 20ppt did not influence the survival of postlarvae significantly (P>0.05). Gradual acclimation extended the range of tolerance. A probit regression line for the relation between the logarithmic salinity level (dose =X) and mortality (Probit response =Y) was found to be Y=5.982023 + 1.332194X. The lowest lethal salinity (LC 50) was 0.5479 ppt with its upper and lower limits being 0.377 and 0.790 ppt respectively. Post larvae exhibited abnormal behaviour and higher rate of cannibalism at suboptimal salinities. Low salinities had a highly significant influence on the growth of juvenile (P<0.001). However, mean values of growth rate between 4 and 15 ppt did not differ significantly (P>0.05) from the control (19.5 + 0.5 ppt). Shrimps reared in different test salinities were subjected to sensory evaluation. Flavour of cooked meat of shrimps differed significantly with variation in salinities (P<0.05). The overall taste panel score was highest at 9.5 + 0.5ppt. The possibility of the influence of salinity on flavor of cultured shrimps is suggested.
Open Access
Standardization of oxygen packing procedure of chanos chanos seed
(Department of Aquaculture, College of Fisheries, Panangad., 1991) Mary Marget, M J; KAU; Jayasree Vadhyar, K
The present study was aimed at finding out the optimum conditioning method of C.chanos seed before packing, their optimum packing density, the effect of salinity, pH and oxygen pressure on their packing and the feasibility of using a sedative, tertiary butyl alcohol and chitosan as an absorbent in removing toxic metabolites accumulated in the oxygen –packed containers. Specially designed air tight plastic containers were used for packing the seed. Of the seed packed after four treatments viz. control, congestion,, gut voiding and gut voiding plus congestion, the fourth treatment was the best with 3.25 fold increase in the duration of 100% survival compared to the control. From packing densities of 20,30,40 and 50 numbers per 50 ml water, a linear relationship between packing density in g/50 ml(X) and time of initial mortality in hours (Y) was established as Y=51.398-20.44X. No significant effect on the duration and survival of the seed was observed at different levels of salinity (0.ppt, 10ppt and 20pp), initial pH (6.5-7.5, 7.5-8.5 and 8.5-9.5) and oxygen pressure (oxygen at atmospheric pressure and at 0.2 kg/cm2 pressure). The use of tertiary butyl alcohol at 3.0 ppm and 3.5 ppm resulted in light and deep sedation of the seed respectively. It also increased the duration of 100% survival by 1.67 and 1.25 fold at the respective doses, compared to the control. The feasibility of using chitosan as an absorbent in oxygen packing of the seed was ruled out.
Open Access
Cannibalism in the tiger prawn Penaeus Monodon fabricius in nursery rearing phase
(Department of Aquaculture, College of Fisheries, Panangad., 1991) Abdussamad, E M; KAU; Thampy, D M
Factors influencing the rate of cannibalism in the post-larvae and Juveniles of Penaeus monodon, were investigated under laboratory conditions. Cannibalism was found to be positively density dependent, significantly suppressed by shelter and negatively correlated to food availability and feeding frequency. With the increase in population density there was an increase in the rate of cannibalism. Provision of different additional sub¬strates in the rearing tanks was found to help in reducing cannibalism. Of the various substrates tested, clam shells and black polythene raffia were found to be the best shelters suitable for reducing cannibalism and assuring high carrying capacity. Feeding frequency was found to have greatest influence on cannibalism, which decreased with increase in feeding frequency. In P. monodon post-larvae cannibalism is invariably associated with attack made on animals undergoing moulting and is independent on the size of the victim. A high rate of cannibalism was observed during the early post-larval phase and it progressively decreased towards the late post-larval stage and juvenile stage, may be due to the decreased moulting frequency and acclimation to new rearing conditions and artificial feed. Substantial variation in size and growth rate was observed among, individuals at all stocking densities. The marked difference in individual growth rate observed within the group could be due to the interaction of various intrinsic and extrinsic factors.
Open Access
Effect of salinity on food intake, conversion efficiency and growth of the prawn Metapenaeus Monoceros (Fabricius)
(Department of Aquaculture, College of Fisheries, Panangad., 1990) Suresh Babu, C; KAU; Thampy, D M
Salinity tolerance of the juveniles of the prawn Metapenaeusmonoceros (Fabricius) was found out by abrupt exposure to high and low salinity levels after acclimation at 25 ppt salinity. 100% mortality was recorded both at zero and 50 ppt and no mortality between 5 and 35 ppt. The lower and higher LC50 values for 120 Hr. period were 1.03 + 0.51 and 42.67 + 0.52 ppt respectively. The juveniles with mean wet weight of 0.4728 + 0.0893 g (41.52 + 6.48 mm TL) were grown at 5, 15, 25 and 35 ppt salinities for 35 days (first experiment), to find out the effect of salinity on food intake, growth, conversion efficiency and assimilation efficiency. Food intake was found uniform throughout the test salinity levels. Growth and assimilation efficiency were comparable between 25 and 35 ppt but conversion efficiency was higher at 25 ppt salinity. Similarly, growth and conversion efficiency were higher at 25 ppt than at the lower test salinities (5 and 15 ppt), even with a significantly lower assimilation efficiency. Growth, conversion efficiency and assimilation efficiency were not significantly different between 5 and 15 ppt as well as between 5 and 35 ppt salinities. Prawns at 15 ppt showed growth and conversion efficiency comparable to that at 35 ppt though assimilation efficiency was more at 15 ppt salinity. In the second growth experiment M.monocerosjuverniles of mean wet weight of 0.4996 + 0.0695 g (42.13 + 5.62 mm TL) and of 1.5483 + 0.1875 g (63.19 + 5.16 mm TL) designated as group I and group II respectively were grown at 20, 25, 30 and 35 ppt salinities for 30 days, to compare food intake, growth, conversion efficiency and assimilation efficiency between the two size groups. In the group I prawns, food intake, growth, conversion efficiency and assimilation efficiency were comparable among the four test salinities. This was the case with group II prawns also with respect to food intake and growth. In group Ii prawns conversion efficiency was significantly higher at 25 ppt than at 30 and 35 ppt, and significantly lower at 35 ppt than at 20 and 25 ppt salinities. Comparable conversion efficiency was obtained between 20 and 25 ppt, 20 and 30 ppt and between 30 and 35 ppt salinities. The lowest assimilation efficiency was recorded at 35 ppt while at all other test salinities, it was more or less uniform. The comparison between group I and group Ii prawns showed that the percentage food intake and percentage weight increase were higher in group I prawns. They also showed higher conversion efficiency at 20, 30 and 35 ppt salinities, but the value for 25 ppt was comparable to that of group Ii prawns. Assimilation efficiency of the two size groups were not different among 25, 30 and 35 ppt salinities but at 20 ppt, group I prawns had lesser assimilation efficiency than group Ii prawns. The dry weight balance, in both growth experiments, showed high assimilation efficiency and comparatively low growth efficiency (K1 and K2) values in all treatments, indicating higher protein requirement in the diet for M. monoceros.
Open Access
Effect of salinity on survival, growth and breeding of the shrimp
(Department of Aquaculture, College of Fisheries, Panangad., 1989) Ignatius, C A; KAU; Thampy, D M
The present study has been undertaken with the major objective of elucidating the effect of salinity on survival, growth, ovarian development, fecundity, incubation period and batch hatching of the freshwater prawn Macrobrachium idella. Mortality of juveniles of M. idella which were acclimated at 0 and 20 ppt and treanferred abruptly to varying salinities, was found to start at 27.5 and 32.5 ppt respectively, whereas in those which were gradually acclimated from 0 to 45 ppt, it was found to start only at a higher salinity level of 37.5 ppt. The 120 Hr LC50 values were 30.90 + 0.7107, 35.89 + 0.7842 and 40.74 + 0.7402 ppt for the prawns acclimated at 0 and 20 ppt and for those gradually acclimated respectively. Thus it could be seen that this prawn is a highly euryhaline one and that acclimation at a higher salinity level and gradual acclimation have got advantage in extending the upper tolerance level. Growth was found to be significantly influenced by salinity, being highest at 0 – 10 ppt, lower at 15 ppt and almost nil at 20 ppt and beyond. Sporozoan infection was noticed in the prawns reared at 15, 20 and 25 ppt. Salinity was found to have no significant influence on fecundity, while ovarian development is being influenced by it. The rate of ovarian development was high at 6 and 12 ppt and low at 0 ppt. Incubation period, which takes about 13 – 15 days was not found to be influenced by salinity, while there was some effect on batch hatching, the rate of which was more at 0 ppt and less at 6 ppt. During incubation, mortality of eggs due to infection was observed only at 0 ppt. Thus, it could be seen that a salinity level of around 6 ppt is ideal for ovarian development, maximum fecundity and synchronous hatching.
Open Access
Effect of salinity on survival and growth of Macrobrachium rosenbergii (De Man)
(Department of Aquaculture, College of Fisheries, Panangad, 1988) Venugopalan I K; KAU; Thampy D M
The effect of salinity on survival and growth of macrobrachium rosenbergii (De Man) was studied with a view to establish the optimum salinity conditions under which it can be cultured. The effect of salinity on survival was assessed by conducting short-term tolerance studies wherein the effect of abrupt transfer and gradual acclimation to the test salinity levels of 5,10,15,20,25,26.5,28.5,30 and 35 ppt was separately studied. In both abrupt transfer and gradual acclimation, no mortality was observed upto 25 ppt within a period of 120 hrs. The LC50 values for 72 hr and 120 hr were 33.3 ppt and 31.6 ppt for gradual acclimation and 29.85 ppt and 28.18 ppt for abrupt transfer respectively. Acclimation prolonged the survival time of the juvenile in the test salinity levels. The study on the effect of salinity on growth was conducted in cement cisterns, wherein salinity levels from 0-10 ppt with regular increments of 2ppt from treatment to treatment were used. There was no significant difference between treatments upto 6 ppt, but all the levels upto 6ppt differed from 8 and 10 ppt with respect to growth. A field trial to verify the growth pattern in different salinity levels was conducted in one fresh water pond and two brackish water ponds having different salinity levels. The growth rate of the prawns was almost equal in both the fresh water pond (0.119 g/day) and the pond with lower salinity levels (0.126 g/day), whereas it was much lower in the high saline pond (0.063 g/day). The survival rate obtained in the high saline pond (58%) was comparable to fresh water (59%) showing that prawns could survive upto a salinity of 20ppt , although the growth rate is lower in higher salinity levels. Studies were conducted to evaluate the effect of salinity on oxygen consumption, ammonia excretion and O:N ratios of M.rosenbergii within the test salinity levels of 0-10 ppt. Oxygen consumption and ammonia excretion were found to be strongly influenced by the wet weight of the juveniles, but the influence of salinity on these physiological indices were not significant within the test levels used in this study. However, a trend of an increase in oxygen consumption and decrease in ammonia excretion towards the lower salinity levels was observed. Oxygen to nitrogen ratios were found to be lower in the higher salinity levels indicating an increase in protein catabolism in such salinity levels.

Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur

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