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Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur
The history of agricultural education in Kerala can be traced back to the year 1896 when a scheme was evolved in the erstwhile Travancore State to train a few young men in scientific agriculture at the Demonstration Farm, Karamana, Thiruvananthapuram, presently, the Cropping Systems Research Centre under Kerala Agricultural University. Agriculture was introduced as an optional subject in the middle school classes in the State in 1922 when an Agricultural Middle School was started at Aluva, Ernakulam District. The popularity and usefulness of this school led to the starting of similar institutions at Kottarakkara and Konni in 1928 and 1931 respectively.
Agriculture was later introduced as an optional subject for Intermediate Course in 1953. In 1955, the erstwhile Government of Travancore-Cochin started the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, Thiruvananthapuram and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences at Mannuthy, Thrissur for imparting higher education in agricultural and veterinary sciences, respectively. These institutions were brought under the direct administrative control of the Department of Agriculture and the Department of Animal Husbandry, respectively. With the formation of Kerala State in 1956, these two colleges were affiliated to the University of Kerala. The post-graduate programmes leading to M.Sc. (Ag), M.V.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees were started in 1961, 1962 and 1965 respectively.
On the recommendation of the Second National Education Commission (1964-66) headed by Dr. D.S. Kothari, the then Chairman of the University Grants Commission, one Agricultural University in each State was established. The State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) were established in India as an integral part of the National Agricultural Research System to give the much needed impetus to Agriculture Education and Research in the Country. As a result the Kerala Agricultural University (KAU) was established on 24th February 1971 by virtue of the Act 33 of 1971 and started functioning on 1st February 1972. The Kerala Agricultural University is the 15th in the series of the SAUs.
In accordance with the provisions of KAU Act of 1971, the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, were brought under the Kerala Agricultural University. In addition, twenty one agricultural and animal husbandry research stations were also transferred to the KAU for taking up research and extension programmes on various crops, animals, birds, etc.
During 2011, Kerala Agricultural University was trifurcated into Kerala Veterinary and Animal Sciences University (KVASU), Kerala University of Fisheries and Ocean Studies (KUFOS) and Kerala Agricultural University (KAU).
Now the University has seven colleges (four Agriculture, one Agricultural Engineering, one Forestry, one Co-operation Banking & Management), six RARSs, seven KVKs, 15 Research Stations and 16 Research and Extension Units under the faculties of Agriculture, Agricultural Engineering and Forestry. In addition, one Academy on Climate Change Adaptation and one Institute of Agricultural Technology offering M.Sc. (Integrated) Climate Change Adaptation and Diploma in Agricultural Sciences respectively are also functioning in Kerala Agricultural University.
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ThesisItem Open Access Phytase supplementation on the availability of different minerals and their interactions in pigs(Department of Animal Nutrition, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 2009) Shyama, K; KAU; Mercy, A DTwo feeding experiments were conducted using 100 weaned piglets to study the effect of dietary supplementation of calcium, phosphorus and phytase in different levels and their interactions on growth, nutrient digestibility, mineral availability and blood and bone mineral profile. In experiment one, sixty four weaned Large White Yorkshire x Desi piglets (32 castrated male and 32 female) belonging to the Centre for Pig Production and Research, Mannuthy were used as experimental animals. All animals were dewormed before the start of the experiment. The piglets were divided into eight groups as uniformly as possible with regard to age, sex and weight. Piglets of each group were allotted randomly into four pens with two piglets in each pen. Piglets in each replicate were maintained under identical management conditions throughout the experimental period of 88 days. Restricted feeding was followed throughout the experimental period and daily feed intake was recorded. Clean drinking water was provided ad libitum in all the pens throughout the experimental period. The animals were fed with standard grower ration with 18 per cent CP and 3200 kcal of ME/kg of feed up to 50 kg body weight and finisher ration with 16 per cent CP and 3200 kcal of ME /kg of feed from 50 kg body weight. Eight dietary treatments with two levels of calcium (0.6 and 1 per cent) and two levels of phosphorus (0.3 and 0.6 per cent) were used with phytase (750 units /kg) and without phytase in a 2x2x2 factorial completely randomized design. The pigs were weighed at the beginning of the experiment and later on at fortnightly intervals. Blood samples were collected at the beginning and on 85th day of the experiment and a digestibility trial was conducted at the end of the experiment to determine the digestibility of nutrients and percentage availability of minerals of the experimental diets by total collection method. The results of the first experiment indicated that the levels of Ca, P and phytase had no effect on average daily gain, feed efficiency and DM intake among pigs reared under the eight dietary treatments, while there was significant interaction between Ca x P (P<0.05) and Ca x phytase (P<0.01) on DM intake. The level of Ca and P and Ca x P x phytase interactions were significant for DM digestibility which resulted in lower DM digestibility for rations T3, T5 and T7 than that of other rations. Dietary levels of P and interaction between Ca x P (P<0.01) and Ca x phytase (P<0.05) were significant for EE digestibility. Hence rations T7 and T8 had lower (P<0.01) EE digestibility than the rest of the experimental rations. Crude fibre digestibility was affected by phytase and P x phytase interaction. Calcium availability was higher (P<0.01) in all phytase supplemented rations. Significant interactions between dietary Ca x phytase (P<0.01) and dietary P x phytase (P<0.05) were observed for Ca availability. Interactions between dietary levels of Ca x P (P<0.05) and Ca x phytase (P< 0.05) were found significant for availability of Cu and Mn respectively. Data on blood samples collected on 85th day revealed that phytase supplementation had significant effect (P< 0.01) on the plasma Ca levels of the animals fed the eight dietary treatments. The interaction between dietary Ca x P levels was also found significant (P< 0.01) for plasma Ca. Dietary levels of both Ca (P< 0.01) and P and interaction between Ca x P (P< 0.01), Ca x phytase and P x phytase (P<0.01) were found to affect plasma P significantly. In case of plasma Zn dietary Ca was having significant (P< 0.01) effect and the interactions between dietary Ca x P (P<0.01), Ca x phytase (P<0.05) and P x phytase (P<0.01) were also found significant. Dietary Ca, P and phytase levels had significant (P<0.05) effect on the plasma ALP activity. Cost of feed per kg body weight gain of pigs was lowest for ration T1. Ration T1 with low Ca, low P and without phytase gave similar growth and feed efficiency with lowest cost of production compared to the other rations and thus T1 was taken as the control ration for the second experiment. The second feeding experiment was conducted for 114 days using 36 weaned Large White Yorkshire x Desi weaned piglets (18 castrated males and 18 females) belonging to the Centre for Pig Production and Research, Mannuthy and the animals were randomly allotted to the three dietary treatments, T1- Control ration containing 0.6 per cent calcium and 0.3 per cent phosphorus, T2 -Control ration without any mineral supplements and with 750 units of phytase/kg feed and T3 - Control ration without phytase and mineral supplementation. A digestibility experiment was conducted to determine the digestibility of nutrients and availability of minerals. Blood samples were collected before the start of the experiment and on 16th week. Radiological examination of femur and mandibles of the representative animals of three groups at the end of the study were done. All the male animals were slaughtered on attaining slaughter weight of 70 kg and the data on dressing percentage, loin eye area, back fat thickness, weight of internal organs were collected. Photograph of rib bone was taken during slaughter and bone ash percentage, bone calcium and bone phosphorus were estimated. Kidney samples were examined histologically to assess pathological changes, if any, due to the experimental rations. Body weight of pigs belonging to T2 (phytase supplemented ration) was significantly higher (P<0.05) than that of T3 in fortnights 4, 6, 7, 8 and 9, while the difference between that of T1 and T2 were non significant in all the fortnights. There was no difference in feed efficiency and digestibility of nutrients among pigs reared under the three dietary treatments. The availability of Ca, P and Mn for T2 ration was higher than that of the control ration while the Mg availability was lower for T2 and T3 than that of T1. Zinc availability was lower for T3 than that of T1 ration. Dressing percentage was lower (P<0.01) for T2 and T3 than that of control and loin eye area was lower (P<0.05) for T3 than that of T1 and T2. There was no gross abnormality of femur and mandible on x-ray examination of pigs reared on three experimental rations. Histopathological examinations of kidney samples also were normal for pigs of T1 and T2 and T3. However ricketty beads were seen on ends of ribs on carcass evaluation, in pigs reared under T3. The bone ash content was also lower (P<0.01) for animals fed ration T3 than that of T1 and T2. Thus feeding ration without any mineral supplementation showed deleterious effects on growth, mineral availability and bone ash content, but supplementation of phytase improved utilization of nutrients and minerals than that of T3 during the period of 114 days of the experiment. Feed cost /kg gain of T1 pigs was higher than that of T2 (P< 0.01) and T3 (P< 0.05). But the difference in the cost of production between T2 and T3 were non significant (P>0.05). It can be concluded that phytase supplementation of rations resulted in decreased feed cost / kg gain.ThesisItem Open Access Optimum energy and protein requirements of broiler rabbits(Department of Nutrition, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 1995) Ganga Devi, P; KAU; James, C SA detailed investigation involving two series of growth studies spread over a period of 24 weeks in Soviet Chinchilla and Cross Bred rabbits was carried out to establish the optimum energy and protein requirements for growth and to ascertain the optimum age for economic slaughter. One hundred and eight weanling Soviet Chinchilla and 108 weanling cross bred (SC X NZW) rabbits formed the experimental subjects. Rabbits of each breed were divided into nine identical groups and maintained factorially on three levels of crude protein (CP) viz., 12, 16 and 20 per cent and digestible energy viz., 2000, 2500 and 3000 kcal/kg for over a period of 168 days involving metabolism and slaughter studies during 8th, 16th and 24th week of experiment and production traits along with associated characters were studied and the salient results are presented. Rabbits maintained on different energy protein combinations showed significant difference in growth rate (P <0.01). Both dietary energy and crude protein were found to influence the average daily gain. The highest rate of gain was achieved in animals maintained on ration containing comparatively higher DE and CP while lowest rate of gain was noticed in animals maintained on low energy, low protein diet. On further scrutiny of the data, an appreciably better and identical growth response was observed in animals maintained on ration containing 3000 kcal DE/kg with 16 per cent CP and ration containing 2500 kcal DE/kg with 20 per cent CP in both pure bred and cross bred rabbits. It is also noticed that for maximum growth rate a ration containing 2500 kcal. DE/kg need be sufficient as further increase in DE have not evinced any better response on ADG, which supports the view that for optimum biological response, a ration containing 2500 kcal DE/kg is sufficient for both pure bred and cross bred rabbits. As between the periods it was observed that the animals attained maximum ADG during the first 56 days of experiment and there after ADG gradually declines irrespective of the level of CP or DE in the ration. Both dietary energy and crude protein significantly influenced (P <0.01) the feed conversion efficiency of animals. Highest efficiency of feed conversion was noticed in rabbits maintained on Ration D containing 2500 kcal DE/kg and 20 per cent CP the values being 9.27 in SC and 8.85 in CB rabbits and further increase in DE from 2500 kcal/kg to the extent of 3000 kcal/kg did not contribute better feed efficiency. Data on feed efficiency further revealed that maximum efficiency was observed during the first eight weeks after weaning and there after there is a linear reduction in feed efficiency as the age advances, in all the nine dietary treatments. With regard to cost of production the maximum biological and economical efficiency could be observed in animals maintained on ration containing 2500 kcal DE/kg with 20 per cent CP and when the cost of production was evaluated in between the periods viz., 0-56 days, 56-112 days and 112-168 days, the cost efficiency is seen maximum during 0-56 days of experiment. Dry matter intake on percentage of body weight was found decreasing on increasing the dietary energy level. Haematological values were with in the normal range and were not significantly influenced by the dietary energy and protein levels. Digestibility of nutrients and percentage retention of nitrogen, calcium and phosphorus were significantly influenced by the dietary treatments with an increasing trend on increasing the dietary energy and protein level. From the metabolism studies carried out during 8th, 16th and 24th week of experiment, the percentage retention of nitrogen, calcium and phosphorus were found reduced on advancing the age of animals. Slaughter studies conducted at 8th, 16th and 24th week of experiment revealed that dressing percentage is directly proportional to the pre-slaughter weight of the animals. Higher dressing percentage is recorded in animals having higher body weight and vice-versa. Carcass yield were higher at 16th and 24th week of experiment than that at eighth week of experiment.ThesisItem Open Access Effect of bypass protein on yield and composition of milk in cross bred cows(Department of Animal Nutrition, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 1995) Kalbande, V H; KAU; Thomas, C TExperiments were carried out to evaluate common feeds and fodders based on their rumen degradability rates and to assess the effect of varying bypass protein levels in concentrate mixtures on rumen fermentation profile and yield and composition of milk in Jersey crossbred cows. The dry matter and nitrogen disappearance rates in respect of nine concentrate feed ingredients and five green roughages commonly used in cattle rations, were determined using nylon bag technique in rumen fistulated crossbred cows. The effective protein degradability rates for groundnut cake, gingelly cake, cotton seed cake, coconut cake, yellow maize, jowar, wheat bran, rice bran, tapioca flour, green maize (Zea mays), green jowar (Sorghum bicolor) and guinea (Panicum maximum), para (Brachiariamutica) and napier grass (Pennisetumpurpureum) were found to be 66.17, 78.89, 27.72, 19.93, 22.64, 47.96,74.16, 60.59, 68.83, 56.93, 58.80, and 35.74, 45.39 and 36.68 per cent respectively at a rumen outflow rate of 0.05 per hour. Among the four oil cakes, gingelly cake and groundnut cake were more degradable in the rumen, whereas, cotton seed cake and coconut cake were comparatively insoluble and more resistant to degradation and thereby better sources of bypass protein for ruminants. The results on degradability measurements with respect to energy feeds revealed that yellow maize contained the least amounts of both soluble and degradable nitrogen as compared to jowar, wheat bran, rice bran and tapioca flour. Wheat bran was found to have higher contents of both rapidly soluble and potentially degradable protein as compared to rice bran. Among the different green fodders tested for protein degradability measurements, cereal fodders like maize and jowar were found more soluble and degradable as compared to different grasses. The effect of three varying ratios (high, medium and low) of Rumen Degradable Protein (RDP) to Undergradable Dietary Protein (UDP) of 37:63, 52:48 and 70:30 in isonitrogenous and isocaloric concentrate mixtures on rumen fermentation profile was studied using rumen fistulated Jersey crossbred cows. Rumen pH and ammonia nitrogen concentrations were found to be lower with concentrate mixture containing a higher UDP level of 63.38 per cent when compared with those having medium and low UDP levels of 47.55 and 29.75 per cent respectively at all post feeding intervals. Total volatile fatty acid concentrations as well as the concentration of individual fatty acids viz., acetate, propoionate and butyrate were also found higher in animals fed on concentrate mixture with the highest UDP level. The effect of the three UDP/bypass protein levels in isonitrogenous and isocaloric concentrate mixtures on milk yield and milk composition was studied using eighteen medium producing Jersey crossbred cows in their early lactation period for 100 days starting from 5th day post partum. The food consumption of the animals was found to increase with increasing UDP levels in concentrate mixtures, the percentage dry matter intake of animals calculated over the entire period of experiment being 3.70, 3.38 and 3.14 respectively for groups fed on concentrate mixtures of high, medium and low bypass protein levels. While animals maintained on the concentrate mixture with the higher UDP level of 63.38 per cent recorded a total gain of 10.83 kg over a period of 100 days, those fed concentrate mixtures with UDP levels of 47.55 and 29.75 per cent respectively lost body weights to the extent of 3.33 and 5.83 kg over the same period of the experiment. The average daily milk yields were found to be 10.11, 7.18 and 6.32 kg respectively for groups fed on concentrate mixtures with high, medium and low UDP levels. The results on milk composition as influenced by varying UDP levels in concentrate mixtures revealed that while milk fat percentage was not altered with degradability changes both milk protein and total solids were found to increase corresponding to increase in UDP levels. The feed conversion efficiency of milk production as well as persistency of milk production was also found to be higher UDP levels over the entire period of the experiment. The income over feed cost per cow per day, calculated over the experimental period of 100 days were found to be Rs. 44.54, 29.91 and 25.28 with the three concentrate mixtures of high, medium and low UDP levels respectively. The overall results clearly revealed that in medium producing Jersey crossbred cows on a grass based diet, a UDP level of 63.38 per cent may be considered optimum in a concentrate mixture with 20 per cent CP and 70 per cent TDN for higher production and better economic efficiency in their early part of lactation.ThesisItem Open Access Assessment of the dietary level of minerals for lactation in crossbred cows in Kerala under different feeding systems(Department of Animal Nutrition, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 2003) Syam Mohan, K M; KAU; Gangadevi, PAn investigation spread over a period of eight months was undertaken in crossbred dairy cattle to assess the dietary levels of minerals for lactation under different feeding systems. Twelve healthy crossbred cows at eight months pregnancy having an average peak yield of minimum eight litres per day in their previous lactation were divided into two groups of six each as uniformly as possible with regard to age and milk yield and were allotted to two dietary treatments viz. ration A consisting of basal concentrate mixture and green grass as roughage (Grass based diet) and ration B consisting of basal concentrate mixture and paddy straw as roughage (Straw based diet). All the experimental animals were fed as per NRC (1989) standards and maintained individually on their respective dietary regime from two months before calving to six months of lactation. Average dry matter intake, milk yield, milk fat percentage, serum minerals, mineral content of milk, digestibility of nutrients, N balance, balance of Ca, P, Mg, Cu and Zn, incidence of metabolic disorders and reproductive performance were the criteria employed for evaluation. Average body weights of animals revealed no significant difference for both the groups during all the fortnights studied. Significant increase (P<0.01) in the average dry matter intake was observed for the animals of group I compared to group II and the highest dry matter intake was observed during the eighth and third fortnight, respectively. Average daily milk yield and fat per cent in milk in all the twelve fortnights did not differ significantly between the groups. The average haemoglobin and mineral concentration in serum and milk at the first, third and sixth month of lactation for the animals in group I and II did not differ significantly. The mineral content in serum and milk in both groups were within the normal range reported for the species. The average digestibility coefficients of dry matter, nitrogen free extract, neutral detergent fibre and acid detergent fibre in group I and II differed significantly (P<0.01) with higher values observed for animals of group I fed grass based diet. No significant difference could be observed in the digestibility coefficient of crude protein and ether extract between the group I and II during the third and sixth month of lactation. The average digestibility coefficients of crude fibre for the third month of lactation between the group I and II did not differ significantly but those for the sixth month of lactation differed significantly (P<0.01) with higher values for group I animals fed grass based diet. Results with respect to balance of N, Ca, P and Mg did not differ significantly (P>0.05) between the two groups for both periods of lactation whereas that for Cu during the third month and that for Zn during both periods of lactation differed significantly (P<0.01) with higher balance for the group I fed grass based ration. There was no incidence of metabolic disorders like hypocalcaemia, hypomagnesaemia and ketosis in both groups of animals. The reproductive performances of animals of both groups were almost similar. An overall critical evaluation of the results obtained in the present study helps to infer that grass based feeding system had a significant effect on improving the digestibility of dry matter, crude fibre, nitrogen free extract, NDF, ADF and the bioavailability of Cu and Zn. Positive balance was obtained for the minerals studied along with their normal content in serum and milk and the animals were apparently healthy without any incidence of metabolic disorders or deficiency symptoms. Hence it is inferred that NRC (1989) requirements of Ca, P, Mg, Cu and Zn is applicable to crossbred lactating cattle of Kerala under both grass and straw based system. The study also indicates that the requirements of P, Mg, Cu and Zn can be solely met from their content in the feed ingredients and Ca is the only element that needs to be supplemented under both feeding system.ThesisItem Open Access Effect of brewery waste on nutrient digestability of paddy straw based diet in lactating cows(Department of Animal Nutrition, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 2009) SenthilKumar, S; KAU; Viswanathan, T VTwo experiments were conducted, one to assess the effect of brewery waste on nutrient digestibility of paddy straw based diet in lactating cows and the other to study the in vitro disappearance, degradability and rumen fermentation characteristics of various experimental feeds in Rumen Simulation Technique (RUSITEC). In animal study, eighteen early lactating cross bred cows within 20 days of lactation were selected and grouped into three as uniform as possible with regard to their age, body weight, parity, previous milk yield and stage of lactation. They were randomly allotted to the three dietary treatments T1, T2 and T3. The control concentrate mixture and paddy straw formed the T1 ration. The animals of T2 and T3 were fed with experimental concentrate mixture containing 25 per cent brewery waste (on DM basis) and paddy straw as roughage. In T2, the brewery waste was fed separately on wet basis, while in T3, the brewery waste to be incorporated in the concentrate mixture was treated with required quantity of paddy straw, three days before feeding. A feeding trial was carried out for a period of 60 days. There was no significant difference (P>0.05) in body weight and average daily dry matter intake (DMI) of experimental animals among the treatment groups T1, T2 and T3. The animals maintained on the three dietary treatments T1, T2 and T3 showed an average daily milk production of 8.03, 10.14 and 11.09 kg, respectively during the 60 day period of the experiment. The milk production was significantly increased (P<0.05) from fourth week onwards in brewery waste fed groups (T2 and T3) when compared with control (T1). The cost of feed per kg milk produced was lower in animals maintained on T2 and T3 rations (Rs. 7.89 and 8.37, respectively) than those fed control ration (Rs. 10.40). The brewery waste feeding did not affect milk composition such as percentage of total solids, milk fat, solids not fat (SNF) and milk protein and milk urea nitrogen (MUN). The four per cent FCM yield and total yield of milk fat and protein remained unaffected by brewery waste incorporation. Animals in all the three groups showed similar blood parameters such as haemoglobin, plasma glucose, plasma urea nitrogen (PUN) and plasma calcium and phosphorus. The MUN and PUN concentrations were significantly higher (P<0.05) in T2 at 60th day than that of T1 and T3. There was no significant difference (P>0.05) in rumen fermentation parameters, such as ruminal pH, NH3-N and TVFA concentration of the animals fed three experimental diets T1, T2 and T3. There was no significant difference (P>0.05) in apparent digestibility of DM, OM, CP, EE, NFE, ADF, cellulose and gross energy among the three treatment rations. Brewery waste fed groups (T2 and T3 ration) recorded significantly higher apparent digestibility of CF and NDF (P<0.05) and hemicellulose (P<0.01) than those fed control diet. An in vitro experiment was conducted to study the disappearance, degradability and rumen fermentation parameters such as pH, total gas production, CO2 production, NH3-N and TVFA and their fractions such as acetate, propionate, isobutyrate, butyrate and valerate concentration of experimental feeds incubated at different incubation periods in RUSITEC. The following experimental feeds were incubated in the RUSITEC, 1) control feed; 2) experimental feed (75%) + fresh brewery waste (25%) (EFFBW); 3) experimental feed (75%) + dried brewery waste (25%) (EFDBW); 4) fresh brewery waste (FBW); 5) dried brewery waste (DBW); 6) paddy straw (PS) and 7) brewery waste incorporated paddy straw (BWIPS). Among the feeds experimented in RUSITEC, disappearance was more in the control feed, EFFBW and EFDBW when compared to other experimental feeds. Similarly, the disappearance was more in BWIPS compared to paddy straw. The in vitro DM, CP, CF, NDF, ADF, hemicellulose and cellulose disappearance rate at all incubation periods were higher for FBW than those for DBW. The control feed, EFFBW and EFDBW had higher ‘a’ and ‘b’ fractions, rate of degradation ‘c’ and in vitro effective degradability of DM and CP than other experimental feeds such as FBW, DBW, PS and BWIPS and paddy straw showed the lowest. The BWIPS showed higher in vitro effective DM and CP degradability compared to paddy straw. The FBW showed higher DM and CP ‘a’ and ‘b’ fractions, rate of degradation ‘c’ and effective degradability than DBW. A low in vitro DM and CP disappearance of 33.24 and 30.75 per cent, respectively were recorded at 72 hours of incubation (effective DM and CP degradability of 30.59 and 28.64 per cent, respectively), whereas the BWIPS had improved in vitro DM and CP disappearance of 42.25 and 38.36 per cent, respectively, at 72 hours of incubation (effective DM and CP degradability of 39.93 and 36.32 per cent, respectively). The data on in vitro rumen fermentation characteristics indicated that during initial incubation periods (2, 6, 12 and 24 hours), the control feed, EFFBW, EFDBW and FBW showed higher in vitro gas production than other experimental feeds, whereas, during later incubation periods (48 and 72 hours), DBW, paddy straw and BWIPS showed higher in vitro gas production than other experimental feeds. Almost similar in vitro CO2 production and pH were recorded at all periods of incubation in seven experimental feeds incubated in RUSITEC. The FBW showed the highest in vitro NH3-N production at all incubation periods, followed by control feed and EFFBW. The paddy straw had the lowest NH3-N production at all incubation periods compared to other experimental feeds. However, the BWIPS showed slightly higher NH3-N production at all incubation periods than paddy straw. The EFFBW and DBW were intermediary NH3-N production at all periods of incubation compared to other experimental feeds in RUSITEC. The TVFA concentration was comparatively higher in control feed, EFFBW and EFDBW at all periods of incubation than the rest of experimental feeds. The FBW had higher TVFA concentration than DBW in later incubation periods (12, 24, 48 and 72 hours). The EFFBW had higher TVFA concentration during initial incubation periods (2, 6 and 12 hours) than DBW, whereas the DBW had higher TVFA concentration during later incubation periods (24, 48 and 72 hours). During initial incubation periods (2, 6, 12 and 24 hours) all the experimental feeds showed higher acetate concentration than later incubation periods (48 and 72 hours). The EFDBW showed the highest acetate, propionate and iso butyrate concentration (349.64, 266.54 and 90.63 mmol/l, respectively) at 24 hours of incubation, compared to other experimental feeds. The paddy straw and BWIPS showed lower acetate and propionate concentration at all incubation periods. From the RUSITEC experiment, the effective CP degradability of paddy straw, control concentrate mixture and experimental concentrate mixture (containing 25 per cent brewery waste) were 28.64, 53.97 and 52.37 per cent, respectively. The average daily RUP intake of the animals of three experimental groups T1, T2 and T3 calculated using the effective degradability values were 0.68, 0.71 and 0.72 kg, respectively and the values are higher than the NRC (2001) recommended requirement of 0.50 kg RUP per day for early lactating cows producing 15 kg of milk. Inclusion of brewery waste at 25 per cent (DM basis) in concentrate mixture in a paddy straw based diet resulted in significantly improved milk production as well as digestibility of crude fibre, NDF and hemicellulose in medium yielding cows in early lactation. The cost of feed per kg milk produced was reduced by 24 per cent by incorporation of brewery waste at 25 per cent level in concentrate mixture (DM basis) in early lactating crossbred cows producing about 10 kg milk per day.ThesisItem Open Access Studies on the degradability of proteins and protected proteins in the rumen of cattle(Department of Animal Nutrition, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 1985) Sampath, K T; KAU; Sivaraman, EAn investigation was carried out to determine the ruminal protein degradability of groundnut cake, gingelly cake, rubber seed cake, coconut cake yellow maize, wheat bran and guinea grass and to determine the correlation between their degradability in rumen and solubility in mineral solvents and autoclaved rumen fluid. The effect of heat treatment and the formaldehyde treatment on the protein degradability of groundnut cake, gingelly cake and rubber seed cake was also studied. The effect of different levels of degradable proteins in the ration on the rumen fermentation pattern in cows and on growth rate and digestibility of nutrients in calves were also studied. The degradability of proteins of the feed stuffs in the rumen were estimated employing the nylon bag technique using five fistulated cows. The effective protein degradability was determined using the formula P = a + bc where k is the c+k fractional outflow rate from the rumen and a, b and c are the constants of the exponential equation p = a + b (1 – e–ct). The effective protein degradability values of groundnut cake, gingelly cake, rubber seed cake, coconut cake, yellow maize, wheat bran and guinea grass at a rumen outflow rate of 0.05/h were 66.76, 85.12, 68.12, 68.61, 19.09, 22.83, 77.02 and 41.50 per cent respectively. Among the oil cakes coconut cake was least degradable in the rumen and was found to be a good source of bypass protein for ruminants. Heat treatment (1500C for 2 hours) reduced the protein degradability of groundnut cake, gingelly cake and rubber seed cake by 83.18, 76.80 and 70.10 per cent respectively at an outflow rate of 0.05/h and the formaldehyde treatment (1 g/100g CP) reduced the protein degradability of these cakes by 55.98, 45.45 and 44.33 per cent respectively at the same outflow rate. Significant correlations were observed between protein degradability of feed stuffs in the rumen and their solubility in 0.15 M sodium chloride (r = 0.79), McDoughal’s artificial saliva (r = 0.74) and autoclaved rumen fluid (r = 0.81). No correlation could be observed between the protein degradability in the rumen and the solubility in Burroughs mineral solution. A significantly high correlation (r = 0.91) was also observed between protein degradability in the rumen and the percentage of protein loss from control bags due to washing. Rumen pH and ammonia nitrogen concentration were significantly higher in the animals receiving rations with higher levels (76.90%) of degradable proteins. The total volatile fatty acid concentration was significantly high in the animals receiving rations with lower levels (45.30%) of degradable protein. The effect of three levels (44.50, 60.50 and 71.30 per cent) of degradable proteins in the ration on growth and digestibility of nutrients was studied using 18 growing calves divided into three groups. The final body weight and the daily weight gain of the calves receiving the lower levels (44.50%) of degradable protein in the ration were significantly high as compared with those obtained in the case of calves receiving higher levels (60.50 and 71.30%) of degradable protein. The drymatter intake and the digestibility of nutrients of the rations were not influenced by the level of degradable proteins in the ration. The optimum level of degradable protein sufficient to support growth was found to be 45 per cent.ThesisItem Open Access Influence of level and degradability of dietary protein on early lactation in crossbred cows(Kerala Agricultural University;Thrissur, 2003) Ally, K.; KAU; Merey, A.D.