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Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur
The history of agricultural education in Kerala can be traced back to the year 1896 when a scheme was evolved in the erstwhile Travancore State to train a few young men in scientific agriculture at the Demonstration Farm, Karamana, Thiruvananthapuram, presently, the Cropping Systems Research Centre under Kerala Agricultural University. Agriculture was introduced as an optional subject in the middle school classes in the State in 1922 when an Agricultural Middle School was started at Aluva, Ernakulam District. The popularity and usefulness of this school led to the starting of similar institutions at Kottarakkara and Konni in 1928 and 1931 respectively.
Agriculture was later introduced as an optional subject for Intermediate Course in 1953. In 1955, the erstwhile Government of Travancore-Cochin started the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, Thiruvananthapuram and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences at Mannuthy, Thrissur for imparting higher education in agricultural and veterinary sciences, respectively. These institutions were brought under the direct administrative control of the Department of Agriculture and the Department of Animal Husbandry, respectively. With the formation of Kerala State in 1956, these two colleges were affiliated to the University of Kerala. The post-graduate programmes leading to M.Sc. (Ag), M.V.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees were started in 1961, 1962 and 1965 respectively.
On the recommendation of the Second National Education Commission (1964-66) headed by Dr. D.S. Kothari, the then Chairman of the University Grants Commission, one Agricultural University in each State was established. The State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) were established in India as an integral part of the National Agricultural Research System to give the much needed impetus to Agriculture Education and Research in the Country. As a result the Kerala Agricultural University (KAU) was established on 24th February 1971 by virtue of the Act 33 of 1971 and started functioning on 1st February 1972. The Kerala Agricultural University is the 15th in the series of the SAUs.
In accordance with the provisions of KAU Act of 1971, the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, were brought under the Kerala Agricultural University. In addition, twenty one agricultural and animal husbandry research stations were also transferred to the KAU for taking up research and extension programmes on various crops, animals, birds, etc.
During 2011, Kerala Agricultural University was trifurcated into Kerala Veterinary and Animal Sciences University (KVASU), Kerala University of Fisheries and Ocean Studies (KUFOS) and Kerala Agricultural University (KAU).
Now the University has seven colleges (four Agriculture, one Agricultural Engineering, one Forestry, one Co-operation Banking & Management), six RARSs, seven KVKs, 15 Research Stations and 16 Research and Extension Units under the faculties of Agriculture, Agricultural Engineering and Forestry. In addition, one Academy on Climate Change Adaptation and one Institute of Agricultural Technology offering M.Sc. (Integrated) Climate Change Adaptation and Diploma in Agricultural Sciences respectively are also functioning in Kerala Agricultural University.
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ThesisItem Open Access Invasion impact of greater club rush (Scirpus grossus L.f) on wetland rice ecosystem(Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2017) Gayathri Karthikeyan, P; KAU; Sansamma GeorgeThe study entitled “Invasion impact of greater club rush (Scirpus grossus L. f) on wetland rice ecosystem” was conducted at College of Agriculture, Vellayani during 2015-2017. The objectives were to study the invasive characteristics, habitat affinity and distribution of greater club rush, to assess its invasion impact on biodiversity and ecosystem functioning of the wetland ecosystem and also to develop an ecofriendly management strategy for recovering the invaded fields. To achieve the objectives, the study covered four aspects, i.e. Part I. Weed mapping and habitat analysis, Part II. Study of invasive characteristics of greater club rush, part III. Invasion impact on biodiversity and ecosystem functioning of wetlands, Part IV. Management of greater club rush. A preliminary survey on the presence of the emergent hydrophyte in Thiruvananthapuram district indicated that the invasion was mainly concentrated in some pockets in the wetlands adjoining the Vellayani fresh water lake. Hence, the wetland ecosystem of the Vellayani lake watershed was selected as the geographical unit for conducting the investigation. Under Part I, the extent of greater club rush invasion in the wetlands of Thiruvananthapuram district was assessed and mapped using Global Positioning System (GPS) and Geographical Information System (GIS). As per local enquiries, the invasion was noticed for the first time about 15 - 20 years back and was spreading fast in waterlogged paddy fields. However, it was not clear how this alien weed was introduced and naturalised in Kerala. The results of the weed mapping studies revealed that greater club rush invasion was concentrated mainly in the north - western side of wetlands adjoining the Vellayani lake. From the drainage and land use maps, it was inferred that there was a flood plain formed in the locality due to indiscriminate wetland reclamation resulting in impeded drainage. The total area under invasion was approximately 65 ha (47.70 per cent of the rice fallows). During the mapping studies, it was also observed that the ownership of a major portion of these paddy fields was vested with absentee landlords who leave the land uncultivated for a long time thus providing open niches for further spread of the weed. Correlation studies on weed density and dry weight with soil and water parameters of the invaded fields indicated that the weed has high level of habitat tolerance and ecological flexibility and was able to thrive under a wide range of field conditions. Under Part II, the invasive nature of greater club rush was assessed by observing the growth and development characteristics of the weed under field conditions. From the results, it was inferred that, tall stature (1.52 m), dense growth habit (342.23 ramets m-2), low light infiltration (4.36 per cent), high relative growth rate (0.028 g g-1 day-1), efficient propagation (rhizomes, stolons and corms combine for multiplication and perennation), huge biomass (30 t ha-1) and abundance of aerenchyma along with ecological flexibility imparts intense competitiveness for greater club rush making it a successful invader. The major part of the study was to assess the impact of greater club rush invasion on the wetland ecosystem (Part III). Based on the weed mapping and habitat analysis, three heavily infested padasekharams, located within a distance of 5 km were selected for the impact study and monitored for two years. The methodology used was Multisite comparison of the co- existing flora and fauna community, between invaded vs uninvaded sites. Alterations in nutrient cycling and microbial activity due to the invasion were studied by collecting and analyzing soil samples from selected sites during three seasons. The results indicated that greater club rush invasion was depleting the diversity of native vegetation in the wetland ecosystem in terms of species richness and also density. Soil seed bank studies also confirmed the negative impact of the invasion on flora diversity. However, the invaded fields were observed to be rich in faunal diversity and an ideal home for several water birds especially purple moorhen. The thick stand of the weed was found to provide refuge to small animals like rats and snakes also; and these in general were causing trouble to rice farmers in adjacent areas. Contrary to several earlier reports, the impact on the ecosystem functioning parameters was negligible, probably due to occasional flooding and sedimentation in the selected locality. To develop an eco-friendly strategy for managing the weed, an experiment was undertaken in a heavily infested paddy field (Part IV) with eight treatments and three replications and the design was RBD. The treatments were: T1 - (Bensulfuron methyl + Pretilachlor) @ 660g ha-1 on the next day of tilling., T2 - (Bensulfuron methyl + Pretilachlor) @ 1320g ha-1 on the next day of tilling, T3 –Azimsulfuron @ 35g ha-1 at 3-5 leaf stage , T4 -Azimsulfuron @ 70 g ha-1 at 3-5 leaf stage, T5 - (Glyphosate @ 1.0 kg ha-1 + 2, 4 – D sodium salt @ 2.0 kg ha-1) at active growth stage, T6 - (Glyphosate @ 0.5 kg ha-1 + 2, 4 – D @ 1.0 kg ha-1) at reproductive stage, T7 -Tillage (Farmer’s practice) and T8 – Control (Uninterrupted weed growth). Among the various treatments, application of Glyphosate @ 0.5 kg ha-1 + 2, 4 – D @ 1.0 kg ha-1 at the reproductive stage was found to be the best, giving complete weed kill with no further regrowth. The opportunities for utilising the weed and thereby managing it were also investigated during the study. The results revealed that greater club rush with its huge biomass production (>30 t ha-1) could remove many of the heavy metals (arsenic, copper, zinc, lead, chromium, cobalt, nickel and chromium) from contaminated soils more efficiently than water hyacinth which is a well known phytoremediator. The nutritive value of the weed biomass (crude protein - 7.5 per cent, crude fibre- 26.79 per cent) was shown to be comparable with that of guinea grass (crude protein - 8 to14 per cent, crude fibre - 28 to 36 per cent). The K/(Ca+Mg) ratio was 1.39 which is considered to be within safe limits in a livestock feed. However being a phytoextractor, further studies needs to be done for justifying its use as a forage. The study revealed that greater club rush has high level of ecological flexibility and competitiveness which make it a successful invader. The weed has already invaded considerable area of wetland rice ecosystem and is likely to spread further in areas left fallow for long periods. It was found that the invaded fields could be efficiently recovered by application of a tank mixture of glyphosate @ 0.5 kg ha-1 + 2, 4 – D sodium salt @ 1.0 kg ha-1 at the reproductive stage. The major negative impact of the invasion on ecosystem was the decline in species richness and density of native weed community. At the same time, the thick weed growth provided ideal habitat for many faunal species. The weed was found to have the potential to be used for phytostabilisation of heavy metal contaminated soils and the luxuriant biomass had reasonable nutritive value also. The overall conclusion is that greater club rush invasion can become a potential threat to the wetland rice ecosystem, if left undisturbed.ThesisItem Restricted Acidity amelioration and nutrient management practices for mitigating yield constraints of rice in Vaikom Kari(Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2017) Devi, V S; KAU; Kumari Swadija, OAn investigation entitled “Acidity amelioration and nutrient management practices for mitigating yield constraints of rice in Vaikom Kari” was carried out as two field experiments in Vaikom Kari soils of Kuttanad during the period from 2014 to 2017 to standardize acidity amelioration and nutrient management practices for rice to overcome yield constraints in Vaikom Kari and to work out the economics of cultivation. Experiment I entitled “Evaluation of acidity amelioration practices for rice in Vaikom Kari” was conducted in farmer’s field in Kallara panchayat in Kottayam district during November 2014 to March 2015. The experiment was laid out in RBD with seven treatments in three replications with rice var. Uma. The treatments included lime, dolomite and rice husk ash (RHA) applied as two splits- as basal + 30 DAS or as basal + one week before third dose of fertilizer application and a control without ameliorants. Lime, dolomite or RHA, irrespective of time of application, could produce taller plants with higher LAI and tiller number at maximum tillering (MT), panicle initiation (PI) and harvest stages. The same treatments recorded higher number of panicles m-2 and 1000 grain weight and lower sterility percentage. Lime, dolomite or RHA as basal + 30 DAS produced significantly higher grain yield over control. Grain yield was significantly and positively correlated with LAI at MT and PI stages and panicle number m-2. Higher straw yield was obtained with lime or dolomite as basal + 30 DAS and RHA treatments. Application of lime, dolomite or RHA as basal + 30 DAS resulted in higher dry matter production at harvest. Soil ameliorants improved the uptake of macronutrients and micronutrients. Uptake of N and K were significantly higher for lime, dolomite or RHA applied as basal + 30 DAS while dolomite as basal + 30 DAS recorded the highest P uptake. The highest uptake of Ca was found with lime as basal + 30 DAS and that of Mg and S with dolomite as basal + 30 DAS. The highest uptake of Mn and Zn were observed with lime as basal + 30 DAS, Cu with RHA as basal + 30 DAS and that of B with lime, dolomite or RHA applied as basal + 30 DAS. The control treatment and RHA applied as basal + one week before PI registered lower Na uptake and both RHA treatments registered higher Al uptake. There was significant and positive correlation of grain yield with uptake of nutrients except Fe, Zn and Al. Lime and dolomite treatments were more effective in reducing soil acidity and improving dehydrogenase activity and nutrient availability in the soil. The ameliorated plots showed higher organic carbon status compared to control. Lime as basal + one week before PI and dolomite treatments recorded higher soil available N at seedling stage and at tillering and PI stages, any treatment except control could register higher available N in the soil. Any liming material applied as basal + 30 DAS improved soil available P status. No significant effect of treatments on available K was observed. Lime or dolomite treatments resulted in higher availability of Ca while dolomite treatments registered higher availability of Mg in the soil. At all stages except harvest, the control plots recorded significantly higher status of available S and Fe and lower status of Mn in the soil. Significant and positive correlation of pH with available Ca and negative correlation with available Fe was observed at all stages of crop growth. Soil available Cu status was the highest with control at PI stage and with dolomite at harvest stage. Dolomite treatments recorded higher available B in the soil. The highest Na content in the soil was registered by dolomite treatments at seedling stage and by control at tillering stage. There was an increase in the availability of Na at all stages of experimentation but the content was below the critical level of toxicity. Soil exchangeable Al status was significantly higher in the control. Lime, dolomite or RHA applied as basal + 30 DAS gave higher net income and BCR while the control recorded the lowest net income and BCR. Experiment II entitled “Standardization of nutrient management practices for rice in Vaikom Kari” was conducted during August to December 2015 and 2016 in farmers` fields in Thalayazham panchayat in Kottayam district. The experiment was laid out in RBD with 16 treatments (formulated based on the results of the Experiment I) in three replications with rice var. Uma. The treatments were dolomite, lime + MgSO4 or RHA + MgSO4 along with 100% POP alone or with 100% POP + foliar spray of 13:0:45 (1%) or borax (0.5%) or 13:0:45 + borax at PI stage. Lime + MgSO4 + 75% POP + 13:0:45 + borax as well as lime without MgSO4 + 100% POP combined with 13:0:45 or borax or both were also included as treatments. The treatments involving dolomite and lime with or without MgSO4 produced taller plants, higher tiller number m-2 and higher LAI during both the years. Dolomite + POP + 13:0:45 produced the highest number of panicles m-2. Higher test weight and lower sterility percentage were observed with dolomite + POP + 13:0:45 and dolomite + POP + 13:0:45 + borax. Higher grain yield of 5.42 and 5.57 t ha-1 during 2015 and 2016 respectively were produced by dolomite + POP + 13:0:45 followed by dolomite + POP + 13:0:45 + borax and lime + MgSO4 POP + 13:0:45. Grain yield was significantly and positively correlated with LAI at MT and PI stages and with panicle number m-2. Pooled analysis also proved the significance of the above treatments in producing higher grain yield. Lower yields were produced by the treatments involving RHA and 75% POP during both the years and in the pooled data. In general, higher straw yields were noticed with the treatments involving dolomite or lime along with foliar spray of 13:0:45 or 13:0:45 + borax. Higher dry matter production was noticed with dolomite + POP along with 13:0:45 or borax during first year and with dolomite + POP or lime + MgSO4 + POP along with 13:0:45 or 13:0:45 + borax during second year. In general, higher uptake of macronutrients and micronutrients was observed with dolomite or lime + MgSO4 treatments along with 100% POP during both the years. Uptake of Na was the highest with RHA + MgSO4 + POP + 13:0:45 during first year and with dolomite treatments during second year. Higher Al uptake was observed with lime + POP + 13:0:45 with or without MgSO4. Significant and positive correlation of grain yield with uptake of P, K, Ca, Mg, S, Mn, Zn, Cu and B and negative correlation with Fe was observed during first year. During second year, the yield was significantly and positively correlated with uptake of nutrients except Na and Al. The treatments involving dolomite, lime with or without MgSO4 performed better in ameliorating soil acidity than RHA treatments during both the years. The treatments involving RHA showed higher EC values. All the treatments except those involving RHA helped in improving dehydrogenase enzyme activity in the soil during the cropping period. The initial soil organic carbon status was maintained during the cropping period due to nutrient management practices. Availability of N in the soil improved due to treatments involving dolomite + POP during seedling stage and due to those involving lime + POP without MgSO4 at other stages. The treatments involving dolomite + POP and lime + POP with or without MgSO4 recorded higher available P during all crop stages. In general, higher status of available K was registered by the treatments involving RHA or lime without MgSO4. All treatments involving lime or dolomite registered higher soil available Ca and those involving dolomite or lime + MgSO4 showed higher availability of Mg in the soil. In general, available S in the soil decreased from initial status during the cropping period. The treatments involving dolomite registered lower status of soil available Fe and higher status of available Mn and B. Higher status of available Zn was registered by the treatments involving dolomite or lime + MgSO4. The treatments involving dolomite, lime + MgSO4 or RHA + MgSO4 along with POP registered higher available Cu in the soil. Dolomite treatments recorded lower status of Na and exchangeable Al in the soil. Soil pH was significantly and positively correlated with available P and significantly and negatively correlated with available Fe and exchangeable Al in the soil. The economics of cultivation in terms of net income and BCR were the highest with dolomite + POP + 13:0:45 during both the years which was closely followed by dolomite + POP + 13:0:45 + borax. The treatments involving RHA and 75% POP registered lower net income and BCR. The results of the study revealed the superiority of dolomite for ameliorating soil acidity in Vaikom Kari soil compared to lime or rice husk ash. Split application of dolomite as basal dose and at 30 DAS proved more effective than application as basal dose and one week prior to fertilizer application at panicle initiation stage. Soil acidity amelioration with dolomite @ 500 kg ha-1 (300 kg as basal dose and 200 kg ha-1 at 30 DAS) and soil application of 90:45:45 kg NPK ha-1 (full P as basal and N and K in three equal splits at 20 DAS, 35 DAS and PI stage) along with foliar spray of 13:0:45 (1%) or combined spray of 13:0:45 (1%) and borax (0.5%) at panicle initiation stage resulted in higher productivity and profitability from rice cultivation in Vaikom Kari soil.ThesisItem Open Access Precision farming in banana (musa AAB nendran ) for productivity enhancement(Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2017) Pintu Roy, Vattakunnel; KAU; Sheela, K RAn investigation entitled “Precision farming in banana (Musa AAB Nendran) for productivity enhancement” was undertaken during 2014-2017 to assess the influence of land management practices and lime application on growth and yield of banana, to standardize the fertigation schedule for yield improvement, to work out the economics and to study the nutrient dynamics under soil and fertigation systems of nutrient application. The study consisted of two experiments carried out simultaneously for two years from March 2015 to May 2017 in the farmer’s field at Pirappancode, Thiruvananthapuram. The first experiment on “Soil management and fertigation studies in banana” was laid out in split plot design with 12 treatment combinations and two controls each replicated thrice. The main plot treatments were the combinations of land management practices (l1- conventional land management and l2- land management for precision farming) and lime application{c1 – as basal at the time of pit preparation and c2 – applied in 2 splits (1/2 basal+1/2 at 4 MAP)} and the sub plot treatments were three levels of fertigation (n1-60 % recommended dose (RD) of N & K; n2- 100 % RD of N & K and n3-140 % RD of N & K). The two controls maintained were KAU adhoc recommendation for precision farming (control 1) and KAU POP (control 2). Lime requirement was calculated based on initial pH and applied as per the treatment. As the P status of the soil was high, P was applied @ 75 % RD for all treatments except control 1. Basal application of FYM @ 15 kg plant-1 and two bunch sprays with 3 % SOP were given uniformly for all the treatments. Precision land management practice (L2) improved growth attributes viz. LAI and total dry matter production (TDMP) and yield attributes like number of fingers in D hand (9.89) during first year and number of fingers bunch-1 (67.71) during second year. L2 also improved quality attributes like TSS and total sugar during second year and reducing sugar and total P uptake during both the years. Pooled analysis indicated the superiority of precision land management practice on yield (28.3 t ha-1). Basal application of lime (C1) resulted in higher LAI, TDMP, number of fingers bunch-1 (67.78), number of fingers D hand-1 (11.08), D finger weight (163.26 g), bunch weight (11.27 kg) and total K uptake during second year. Quality parameters viz. TSS, and sugar acid ratio during first year and pulp peel ratio during second year were also more for C1. Basal application of lime significantly increased the second year yield (28.19 t ha-1) and pooled yield (28.96 t ha-1). Higher growth attributes viz. LAI and TDMP and NPK uptake were observed with N2 during first year and N3 during second year. However, N2 and N3 were on par with respect to N uptake during first year and P uptake during second year. Among yield attributes, weight of D finger (223.71 g) was more with N2 during first year and higher number of fingers bunch-1 was obtained with N2 (66.66) and N3 (68.19) during second year. Fertigation of 60 % RD of N & K significantly improved fruit quality. Pooled yield was higher with fertigation of 100 % and 140 % RD of N & K (28.68 t ha-1 and 27.63 t ha-1 respectively). All treatment combinations resulted in improved growth and yield over control 2. Precision land management and basal application of lime with fertigation of 60, 100 or 140 % RD of N & K recorded higher yield (30.38, 30.87 and 28.77 t ha-1 respectively). Fertigation treatments and adhoc recommendation resulted in yield improvement by 30.83 % and 21.61 % respectively over soil application. Precision land management practices and fertigation of 100 % RD of N & K significantly improved water use efficiency (WUE) and water productivity during the first year while fertigation of 100 % and 60 % RD of N & K recorded higher water productivity application during second year. Application of entire quantity of lime as basal enhanced WUE during both the years. Drip irrigation enhanced WUE and water productivity over basin irrigation. Compared to soil application of 100 % RD of N & K, fertigation with the same nutrient level resulted in higher nutrient use efficiency and agronomic efficiency. All treatment combinations recorded higher gross income, net income and B: C ratio when compared with controls. Among the combinations, precision land management with basal application of lime and fertigation with 60 % RD of N & K recorded higher B: C ratio (3.75). The second experiment on “Nutrient dynamic studies in banana” was carried out with the treatment combinations involving fertigation of 100 % RD of N&K (l1c1n2, l1c2n2, l2c1n2 and l2c2n2) of the first experiment along with controls. Observations on pH, organic carbon (OC), primary, secondary and micro nutrient status in both soil and plant were taken at bimonthly interval. Dynamics on soil pH duirng first year and NH4-N and S during both the years indicated an initial increase upto 4 MAP followed by a decline at 6 MAP and again a slight increase at harvest stage of the crop. However for pH during second year and K content during first year, a slight decrease was noticed towards the harvest stage. In general, an increasing trend in NO3-N content in the soil was observed from initial stage to harvest stage of the crop. An increasing trend in OC and P contents were also observed in the soil. In general, build up of Ca and Mg in the soil was noticed after two years of experimentation. Changes in soil pH and nutrient content under fertigation and soil application of fertilizers indicated that soil application resulted in higher pH during first year while fertigation enhanced pH during second year especially during grand growth phase (6 MAP). The OC content recorded varying response during both the years. Fertigation resulted in higher NO3-N content in soil throughout the growth stages except at 6 MAP during first year and 6 MAP and at harvest during second year. Soil application of fertilizers resulted in higher K content in the soil throughout the growth stages during first year while fertigation enhanced K availability during early crop growth stages during second year. Availability of Ca and Mg in the soil was more for fertigation compared to soil application of fertilizers especially during grand growth phase. Fertigation improved S availability only at 4 MAP and at harvest. Correlation study revealed significant and positive correlation of bunch weight with Mg content and N/K ratio in the soil during first year and N, K, Ca and Mg contents and N/P, Mg/P, Ca/Fe and Ca/Mn ratios during second year. Significant and positive correlation of bunch weight was also observed with K, Mn and B contents in the plant during first year and Ca and Cu contents and Ca/Fe and Ca/Mn ratios during second year. The results of the present study revealed that precision land management practice (deep ploughing to a depth of 50 cm, raised beds to a height of 30 cm, taking pits and planting) along with basal application of FYM, P (based on soil P status) and lime (based on soil pH) and fertigation of 60 % RD of N & K (urea @ 390 g plant-1 and MOP @ 450 g plant-1) is the best management practice to increase yield and profitability of Nendran banana. Fertigation can be given at weekly interval starting from the first month of planting. Soil nutrient dynamics was found to be influenced by rainfall pattern, growth stage of crop and nutrient interactions. In general, fertigation improved the nutrient availability over soil application.ThesisItem Open Access Water and weed management for aerobic rice(Department of Agronomy, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2017) Akhil, T Thomas; KAU; Deepa ThomasAerobic rice culture is a technology to improve the water productivity in rice culture. Water and weed management are two important aspects of this promising technology. It is well established that yield reduction in rice happen if the soil moisture level falls below the field capacity. Unlike in flooded conditions,weeds pose greater problem in aerobic rice production.A field study was undertaken at Agronomic Research Station (ARS), Chalakudy from September 2016 to January 2017 for developing appropriate water and weed management strategies for aerobic rice. The treatments comprised of three levels of irrigation in the main plot (irrigation at 10 mm cumulative pan evaporation (CPE), 20 mm CPE and 30 mm CPE) and five weed management treatments in the subplot (pre emergent herbicide oxadiargyl followed by hand weeding, oxadiargyl followed by 2,4- D sodium salt, oxadiargyl followed by bispyribac sodium at 20 days after sowing (DAS), hand weeding at 20 and 40 DAS and an unweeded control). Depth of irrigation was 3 cmand the total water applied including effective rainfall amounted to 933 mm, 574 mm, 403 mm in I1, I2 and I3 respectively. Irrigation at 10 mm CPE recorded higher values for growth parameters like plant height and number of tillers per meter as well as yield and yield attributes.Higher root volume also was recorded in these plots .Relative leaf water content and chlorophyll content were higher under frequently irrigated plots (10 mm CPE) than less irrigated plots. Moisture stress lead to inhibition of leaf production and decline in leaf area in aerobic rice. Higher availability of moisture, reduced stress, better growth and yield attributes contributed to higher yield under irrigation at 10 mm CPE. Moisture stress caused reduction of 44 percent grain yield under irrigation at 30 mm CPE over irrigation at 10 mm CPE. Hand weeding at 20 and 40 DAS resulted in better growth, yield and yield attributing factors of aerobic rice. Oxadiargyl followed by bispyribac sodium at 20 DAS and oxadiargyl followed by hand weeding at 20 DAS were the next bettertreatments which were on par.Weed competition resulted in 64 percent reduction in grain yield. Oxadiargyl when applied pre-emergent waseffective in controlling the first flush of weeds in the field. All the treatment combinations with oxadiargyl recorded the lower weed dry matter production and weed density. As the crop advanced to flowering, hand weeding at 20 and 40 DAS resulted in lower weed dry matter production and weed density. Better growth and yield in this treatment suggested a long critical period of weed competition in aerobic rice. Irrigation at 30 mm CPE registered the highest water productivity of 0.96 kg m-3, but with severe yield loss. Among weed management treatments hand weeding at 20 and 40 DAS recorded the highest water productivity (1.13 kg m-3) and the lowest was from unweeded control (0.37 kg m-3). Irrigation at 10 mm CPE in combination with hand weeding at 20 and 40 DAS registered the highest growth and grain yield (2791 kg ha-1) and recorded water productivity of 0.88 kg m-3. However irrigation at 10 mm CPE in combination with oxadiargyl followed by bispyribac sodium at 20 DAS resulted in the highest net return (Rs 51477 per hectare) and B:C ratio (2.3).ThesisItem Open Access Productivity of spinach beet as influenced by varieties and nutrient doses(Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2017) Vinod Alur; KAU; Sheeba Rebecca, IsaacThe investigation entitled “Productivity of spinach beet as influenced by varieties and nutrient doses” was carried out at College of Agriculture, Vellayani, Thiruvananthapuram to assess the suitability of five varieties of spinach beet under protected and open conditions, to standardize the nutrient doses and to work out the economics. The experiment was laid out in split plot design in the Instructional Farm, College of Agriculture Vellayani at 8.50 N latitude, 76.9 0 E longitude, under protected and open conditions as two separate experiments during August- November 2015 and 2016 respectively. The treatments included five varieties (V1: All Green; V2: Pusa Bharathi; V3: Punjab Green; V4: Indam Kolkatta; V5: Trendy) in main plots and three nutrient levels ( N1: 40:20:40 kg NPK ha-1; N2: 60:30:60 kg NPK ha-1; N3: 80:40:80 kg NPK ha-1) in sub plots with four replications. The soil belonged to the order oxisol. The results of the experiment under protected condition revealed that among the five varieties tested, Punjab Green was found superior in terms of the number of leaves, leaf area index (LAI) and yield. The maximum leaf yield recorded by Punjab Green was 4.78 kg m-2 followed by All Green (4.56 kg m-2). Plant height, total number of leaves plant-1 and LAI were significantly higher at N3 (80:40:80 kg ha-1)compared to the lower doses. The same NPK level recorded the highest yield of 4.70 kg m-2 which was significantly superior to the other levels. The interaction effects were significant with v1n3 recording maximum leaf yield (5.06 kg m-2) followed by v3n3 (5.01 kg m-2). Nutrient uptake (NPK), protein and Fe contents were the highest in Punjab Green which was significantly superior to the other varieties, while vitamin C was the highest in Pusa Bharathi. Spinach beet fertilized with 80:40:80 kg NPK ha-1 showed significantly higher values for NPK uptake, Ca content and vitamin C. Soil pH was found to increase with higher levels of nutrients and organic carbon content decreased from the initial values. Available NPK status in soil were found to increase with the increased NPK application. The var. Punjab Green showed maximum net returns ( 881.59from 10m2) and benefit-cost ratio (1.44) and among nutrient levels, nutrient dose of 80:40:80 kg NPK ha-1 was found to be the most economical (net returns from 10 m2 - 835.54, B:C ratio- 1.42). Taking into account the interaction effects, the varieties All Green and Punjab Green at 80:40:80 kg NPK ha-1 could be recommended for cultivation under protected conditions. In open field condition, the var.All Green recorded significantly taller plants with the highest number of leaves, LAI and leaf yield. Among the different nutrient levels, N3 (80:40:80 kg NPK ha-1) was found to be significantly superior in yield attributes and leaf yield in spinach beet. The interaction of Pusa Bharathi and 80: 40: 80 kg NPK ha-1 registered significantly higher yield (4.14 kg m-2) followed by All Green at 80 :40 : 80 kg NPK ha-1 (4.02kg m-2). Nutrient uptake, vitamin A, C, protein and Ca contents were significantly high in the var. All Green and inthe nutrient dose of 80 :40:80 kg NPK ha-1. Interaction effect of the above combination (v1n3) also recorded higher values for the plant nutrient contents. Available N, P and K contents in soil significantly increased with increase in NPK levels. Economic analysis revealed that the interaction v2n3 (Pusa Bharathi and 80 :40 : 80 kg NPK ha-1) was most profitable ( net returns 495.39 from 10 m-2 and B:C ratio 1.25) followed by v1n3( net returns 418.36 from 10 m-2 and B:C ratio 1.21). The variety Punjab Green and All Green were the most suitable varieties for cultivation in polyhouse while All Green and Pusa Bharathi could be recommended for cultivation in the open. The Ca, protein chlorophyll content and NPK uptake were the highest in Punjab Green and All Green in the polyhouse and open respectively. The NPK dose of 80:40:80 kg NPK ha-1was found to be the suitable nutrient dose under both conditions irrespective of the variety. Taking into account the economics of cultivation, the combinations, All Green + 80:40:80 kg NPK ha-1 was the most profitable in the polyhouse while Pusa Bharathi + 80:40:80 kg NPKha-1, for cultivation in the open.ThesisItem Open Access Microsite variations of okra [Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench.] Under different weed management practices(Department of Agronomy, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2017) Shamla, K; KAU; Sindhu, P VOkra [Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench.] is a warm season vegetable crop cultivated mainly for its immature fruits. Weed control is an expensive management practice in okra production which can influence productivity of both crop and soil. Weed management practices can modify the micro environment of crops, the extent depending on the method adopted, environmental conditions, and other management practices. The present study was taken up in the Department of Agronomy, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara during March to June, 2016 to assess the effect of weed management practices on microsite variations and their consequent effect on growth and yield of okra. The treatments comprised of four different organic mulches (mango leaves, paddy straw, newspaper and coir fibre mat), mulching with black polythene sheet, hand weeding, application of pre emergence herbicide and an unweeded control treatment. Black polythene mulching positively influenced the yield and yield attributes of okra and resulted in greatest plant height and number of branches. Mulching with black polythene, hand weeding and herbicide treatment reduced the number of days to harvest. Higher number of harvests and number of fruits per plant were obtained with black polythene mulching. This treatment recorded a fruit yield of 14.58 t ha-1, followed by the treatments paddy straw mulching and newspaper mulching (11.16 and 11.01 t ha-1). Crop uptake of nutrients was higher under black polythene mulch and was lowest in unweeded control. Similarly, except for coir fibre mat mulching, all other treatments with mulching showed higher uptake of nutrients, and consequently, these plants showed higher relative chlorophyll content (SPAD units). Mulching also improved the soil nutrient status as compared to hand weeded, herbicide treated and weedy check plots. Available N and K were higher in mulched plots while available P content was more or less similar in all the plots. Considerable effect of weed management practices on soil microclimate was noticed. Black polythene sheet recorded higher soil temperature during the entire crop period. Soil temperature in the plots with organic mulches was lower than the plots without mulching. In general, the soil moisture content at different growth stages of the crop was higher in all the treatments with mulching as compared to treatments without mulching. Higher population of soil microflora was observed with mulching as compared to unmulched plots. Paddy straw improved soil bacterial and fungal populations both at flowering and harvesting, whereas, actinomycetes were higher under black polythene mulch. At flowering, total population of P - solubilsers, nitrogen fixers and antagonists were higher under mulching with paddy straw. At harvest higher microbial biomass carbon was found in black polythene mulched plots, followed by paddy straw. Higher weed control efficiency (more than 90 %) was observed with black polythene mulching throughout the crop period. Among different organic mulches, newspaper mulch recorded higher weed control efficiency followed by paddy straw mulch. Mulching with coir fibre mat failed to reduce weed growth. Mulching with paddy straw and newspaper recorded lower weed indices than hand weeding and pre emergence application of pendimethalin. The highest benefit:cost ratio of 3.02 was recorded for black polythene mulching. Newspaper mulching and pre emergence spray of pendimethalin were next with respect to B:C ratio. Different weed management practices significantly influenced the micro environment of the crop, and influenced the yield and yield parameters of okra as well as the soil quality. Use of either organic (newspaper or paddy straw) or inorganic (polythene) mulches is a better alternative to manual weeding or herbicidal application for effective weed management and for better B:C ratio in okra.ThesisItem Open Access Rhizosphere management for higher root production in ashwagandha (Withania somnifera L. Dunal)(Deparment of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Padannakkad, 2017) Ashiba, A; KAU; Anilkumar, A SThe investigation entitled, ―Rhizosphere management for higher root production in ashwagandha (Withania somnifera L. Dunal)‖ was carried out at the Instructional farm attached to the College of Agriculture, Padannakkad during 2015-17 to study the effect of integrated nutrient management practices and summer irrigation on growth promotion and root production in ashwagandha. The experiment was laid out in RBD with 14 treatments replicated twice. The treatments were T1 - HDP in trenches mulched with polythene and filled with enriched growing medium, T2 - T1 + Recommended dose of NPK, T3 - T1 + Liquid organic manures, T4 - T2 + azospirillum, T5 - T3 + azospirillum, T6 - T4 + B and Mg, T7 - T5 + B and Mg, T8 - T6 + Summer irrigation at 15 mm CPE, T9 - T7 + Summer irrigation at 15 mm CPE, T10 - T6 + Summer irrigation at 30 mm CPE, T11 - T7 + Summer irrigation at 30 mm CPE, T12 - HDP in trenches filled with enriched growing medium, T13 - NRP in trenches filled with enriched growing medium, T14 - Broadcasting in trenches filled with enriched growing medium. The results of the field experiment revealed that all growth parameters of ashwagandha were significantly influenced by treatment effects. In general, the treatment T6 was found superior in enhancing vegetative growth. However, the treatments did not exert any significant effect on primary, secondary and tertiary branches at any of the growth stages. The treatments had no significant effect on primary root number during early stages of growth (45 DAT and 60 DAT). The effect of treatments was evident from 75 DAT onwards. T10 at 75 DAT; T9 at 90 DAT; and T8 at 105 DAT and 120 DAT recorded higher primary root number. With respect to root characters, T8 recorded higher root number, T8 and T10 recorded the greatest root length, T11 the highest root spread, and T10 the highest root volume at the time of harvest. The treatment T10, recorded the highest fresh and dry root weight per plant and fresh and dry root production per hectare. The highest LAI and seed yield per plant and seed production per hectare were registered by T6. In general, relative leaf water content and leaf temperature were unaffected by treatment effects. Crude alkaloid content ranged from 6.5 % to 10.4 %. The highest crude alkaloid content of 10.54 % was registered by T7. Other biochemical parameters namely total sugar and total amino acid content were not at all influenced by treatment effects. Azospirillum population ranged from 11.5 x 105 to 64 x 105 per gram dry soil. The highest population of 64 x 105 per gram dry soil was registered by the treatments T8 and T5. Seasonal consumptive use and mean daily consumptive use ranged from 145.73 mm to 250.80 mm and 1.22 to 2.09 mm respectively and T14 registered the higher values. The highest crop water use efficiency of 474.78 g m-3 was recorded by T10. Field water use efficiency varied from 84.46 to 222.31 g m-3 and the highest value was recorded by T6. The treatment which recorded the highest value of field water use efficiency also registered the highest water productivity of 1313.47 g m-3. The highest nitrogen content was recorded by T6. T8, T9 and T10 registered higher contents of phosphorus, potassium and boron respectively. The treatment, T10 was found worthwhile for popularization with respect to higher fresh and dry root yield per plant and root production per hectare, dry matter production, crop water use efficiency, gross income, net income and BCR.ThesisItem Open Access Tillage and water saving techniques for black gram in rice fallows(Department of Agronomy, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2017) Aisha Mol, P B; KAU; Latha, ABlack gram is one of the major pulse crop grown throughout India. It is cultivated in an area of 3.5 m. ha with a production of 2.1 m. tones (NCAER, 2016). However, the production is not sufficient to meet the domestic demand. In Kerala, black gram cultivation is very limited or negligible. The summer rice fallows are the potential areas for pulse cultivation in Kerala. It is mainly grown under rainfed condition with poor management practices and so the productivity is found to be very low. Hence, measures are to be taken to enhance the productivity of pulses with advancements in technology. Conservation agriculture is gaining momentum now-a-days and mulching and drip irrigation are water saving technologies for enhanced crop production. The research work on the topic “Tillage and water saving techniques for black gram in rice fallows” was undertaken in the Department of Agronomy, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara during 2015-2017. The project was aimed to study the effect of reduced tillage practices on yield of black gram in rice fallows and to test the feasibility of mulch cum drip irrigation practices under conservation tillage in rice fallows. The experiment was laid out as RBD in split plot replicated thrice. There were 4 main plot treatments with tillage and mulching (conventional tillage with mulching, conventional tillage without mulching, reduced tillage with mulching, reduced tillage without mulching) and 3 subplot treatments with levels of drip irrigation (at 80% EP, 40% EP and life saving irrigation). Observations on growth, yield attributes and yield were recorded and soil moisture status, nutrient contents of plant and soil were determined. The conventional tillage with mulching produced taller plants with higher number of branches and LAI at different growth phases of black gram. Maximum biomass and dry matter production were also achieved under conventional tillage with mulching. Among the levels of drip irrigation, drip irrigation at 80% EP had the tallest and vigorous plants compared to other levels. Maximum number of pods per plant, longer pods and highest number of seeds per pod were produced by the plants in mulched plots with conventional tillage. Conventional tillage with mulching recorded the highest yield (1339 kg/ha) and it was 25, 60 and 80% higher than that of reduced tillage with mulching, conventional tillage without mulching and reduced tillage without mulching respectively. Among the drip irrigation levels, highest yield attributes and yield were recorded from plots with drip irrigation at 80% EP. Conventional tillage with mulching exhibited a 15, 18 and 40% higher WUE than conventional tillage without mulching, reduced tillage with mulching and reduced tillage without mulching respectively Among drip irrigation levels, highest water use efficiency was recorded from plots with life saving irrigation. Higher soil moisture content was recorded by reduced tillage with or without mulching and drip irrigation at 80% EP at different depths as well as at different growth phases. Bulk density was found to be lower in the treatment of conventional tillage with mulching. Reduced tillage without mulching recorded the highest nutrient content of plants and available nutrient contents of soil. B:C ratio was found to be maximum under conventional tillage with mulching and drip irrigation at 80% EP. Conventional tillage with mulching and drip irrigation at 80% EP was found to be better option in terms of yield and net returns in black gram for cultivation in summer rice fallows.ThesisItem Open Access Leaf litter recycling in homestead agroforestry systems(Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2017) Harishma, S J; KAU; Sheeba Rebecca, IsaacThe study entitled “Leaf litter recycling in homestead agroforestry systems” was conducted during the period 2015-‘17 at College of Agriculture, Vellayani. The main objectives of the study were to hasten the decomposition process of leaf litter of two selected multipurpose tree species commonly grown in homestead agro forestry systems using microorganisms and earthworms, to enrich the litter compost with bio fertilizers, to assess the response of amaranthus to the enriched litter compost application and to monitor the changes in soil chemical and biological properties with use of the compost as nutrient source. The study was conducted as two experiments i) composting of leaf litter and ii) assessing the response of amaranthus to enriched leaf litter compost. The experiment on composting of leaf litter was laid out in Completely Randomised Design with two factors replicated thrice. The treatments were two tree species (T1- Jack ; T2- Coconut) and eight composting methods [C1 - Composting inoculum (CoA, Vellayani) – powder formulation @ 20 g kg-1; C2 - Composting inoculum of Bacillus subtilis (CoH, Vellanikkara) - liquid formulation @ 1000 ml m-3, C3 - Earthworms (Eudrillus eugineae) @ 50 nos. m-3; C4 - Co-composting with poultry manure @ 10% w/w; C5 -C1 + C 3; C6 -C 2 + C3; C7 – Natural decomposition with soil; C8 - Natural decomposition without soil. Litter samples of the two tree species were collected during March, 2016 and analysed for bio-chemical constituents. Composting was done in cement pots of uniform size as per the treatments envisaged. Analysis of the initial litter revealed higher nitrogen, lignin and phenol contents in coconut litter. Phosphorus and potassium contents were higher and C:N ratio wider in jack litter. Results of the decomposition study revealed that composting of leaf litter with different organisms and co-composting could significantly reduce the time taken for complete decomposition in both litter species. Co- composting was found to be the best method for hastening the decomposition. Decomposition was completed in 105 days in jack and 121 days in coconut litter, compared to the 206 and 238 days taken for natural decomposition in jack and coconut, respectively. The final composts of both litter had significantly higher amounts of nutrients and lower C: N ratio compared to the initial litter. Based on the time taken for decomposition, nutrient contents and C: N ratio of the final composts, the three best composts in jack selected for the field experiment - i) C4 (N -1.87%, P- 0.73%, K- 0.16%, C: N ratio- 16.63:1, decay time -105 days), ii) C5 (N -1.35%, P-0.80% , K-0.25%, C:N ratio- 21.60:1, decay time-138 days) and iii) C2 (N- 1.30 %, P -0.64% , K- 0.20%, C:N ratio- 27.89:1, decay time- 165 days). In the case of coconut leaf litter, the composts selected were - composting with i) C4 (N- 2.48%, P- 0.44% , K- 0.20 %, C : N ratio- 11.94:1, decay time – 121 days), ii) C6 (N- 2.18 %, P - 0.27% , K- 0.12%, C: N ratio- 13.70:1, decay time- 148 days ) and iii) C1 (N- 2.31 %, P -0.61 % , K- 0.14%, C: N ratio -16.48:1, decay time -179 days). Field evaluation of the litter composts was conducted in the Instructional Farm, College of Agriculture, Vellayani during November 2016- February, 2017. The selected composts enriched with PGPR Mix I (@10 g kg-1 + rock phosphate @15% w/w basis and thermo chemically digested composts (Suchitha) of both species were used as nutrient source for amaranthus (var. Arun) at 50% substitution of recommended dose of nitrogen (KAU, 2016). The eight (T1-T8) treatments, along with a control (100% chemical fertilizer application, T9) were laid out in Randomised Block Design with three replications. Application of coconut leaf litter composted with composting inoculum (liquid) + earthworm (T6) resulted in significantly taller plants at the different stages of growth. Leaf area index was highest in T6 and was on par with T4 and T2 at 60 DAT. Yield was significantly higher in T6 (20.20 t ha-1) and remained at par with T2 (17.96 t ha-1). Available K status of soil was significantly high in the treatments which received thermo chemically digested composts. Soil microbial count recorded higher values in T6 for bacteria (67.8 x 106cfu g-1 soil) and fungi (24.7 x 104 cfu g-1 soil). Actinomycetes was the highest (15.7 x 105 cfu g-1 soil) in T5. Application of coconut leaf litter compost [composting inoculum (liquid) + earthworms] as nitrogen source resulted in higher net returns (₹ 144874 ha-1) and benefit cost ratio (1.92) in amaranthus. The results of the study revealed that composting leaf litter with microorganisms and earthworms reduced the time for decomposition by up to 50 percentage. Co-composting with poultry manure was the best method for rapid composting in jack and coconut leaf litter. Through the process of enrichment, the nutrient content of the leaf litter compost found to be increased. Substituting 50 per cent recommended dose of nitrogen in amaranthus with coconut leaf litter compost (composting inoculum (liquid) + earthworms] resulted in significantly higher yield (46.7 per cent) and economic returns compared to 100 per cent chemical fertilizer application. The available nutrient status and microbial population in the soil were found increased through leaf litter compost application.
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